i 


- i  *j 


BULLETIN  358 


Published  monthly  by  the 

New  York  State  Education  Department 


NOVEMBER   I  90S 


Secondary  Education 

Bulletin  27 
SYLLABUS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  1905 


PAGE 

Historical  sketch 3 

Introductory  notes 10 

English 16 

First  year  English 19 

Second  year  English 20 

'  "hird  year  English 22 

Fourth  year  English 23 

English  grammar 27 

History  of  the  English  language 

and  literature 29 

Latin  and  Greek 31 

Latin 32 

Greek 35 

Modern  foreign  languages 38 

German 38 

French 42 

Spanish 45 

Mathematics 48 

Advanced  arithmetic 48 

Elementary  algebra 49 

Intermediate  algebra 52 

Plane  geometry 54 

Solid  geometry 54 

Trigonometry 54 

Advanced  algebra 55 

Physical  science 58 

Physics 58 

Chemistry 82 

Biologic  science. 105 

Biology 105 

Elementary  botany 109 

Elementary  zoology 113 


PAGE 

Physiology  and  hygiene 119 

Advanced  botany 123 

Advanced  zoology 128 

Physical  geography  and  agricul- 
ture    132 

Physical  geography 132 

Agriculture 151 

History 158 

Ancient  history 162 

European  history. ., 182 

English  history 210 

American  history 226 

Social  science 248 

Civil  government 248 

Economics. 268 

Business  subjects. 272 

Elementary  bookkeeping 273 

Advanced  bookkeeping 275 

Business  practice  and  technics. .  277 

Business  arithmetic 279 

Commercial  law 279 

History  of  commerce . ,  > 281 

Commercial  geography 286 

Business  correspondence 291 

Business  writing 292 

Stenography 292 

Typewriting 293 

Drawing  and  advanced  drawing.  295 

Drawing 297 

Advanced  drawing 313 

Index 319 


ALBANY 

NEW  YORK  STATE  EDUCATION  DEPARTMENT 
1905 

H36sm-AP5-5ooo  Price  25  cents 


THE  UNIVERSITY 

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New  York  State  Education  Department 


Secondary  Education 

Bulletin  27 

SYLLABUS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  1905 

HISTORICAL  SKETCH 

In  tracing  the  history  of  the  Academic  Syllabus  we  find  its  begin- 
nings in  the  very  early  records  of  the  Board  of  Regents.  The  Board 
was  organized  under  a  statute  enacted  May  1,  1784.  At  a  meeting 
of  the  Regents  held  at  the  Exchange  in  the  city  of  New  York,  Feb. 
28,  1786,  it  was  ordered  that  a  committee  be  appointed  to  consider 
"ways  and  means  of  promoting  literature  throughout  the  State." 
At  the  second  meeting  of  the  reorganized  Board,  Nov.  17,  1787, 
Erasmus  Hall  and  Clinton  Academy  were  incorporated  and  com- 
mittees were  designated  to  visit  these  academies  and  Columbia 
College,  the  three  institutions  of  the  University  at  that  date. 

At  a  regular  meeting  held  in  the  Senate  chamber  at  Poughkeepsie 
Feb.  26,  1788,  a  report  to  the  Legislature  was  adopted,  from  which 
it  appears  that  Erasmus  Hall  had  26  students,  and  Clinton  Academy, 
53 ;  that  the  principal  of  Erasmus  Hall  in  conjunction  with  the  trus- 
tees had  signified  a  determination  that  the  classical  and  English 
departments  should  be  regularly  attended  to  by  proper  tutors ;  that 
the  first  of  these  departments  should  comprise  the  Latin  and  Greek 
languages  with  geography  and  the  outlines  of  ancient  and  modern 
history;  that  the  second  should  comprehend  the  English  language, 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic  and  bookkeeping;  that  the  French 
language  should  also  be  taught  to  those  that  request  it,  and  elocution 
be  attended  to  in  both  departments;  that  the  students  of  Clinton 
Academy  were  instructed  according  to  their  several  classes;  that 
the  first  consisted  of  12  scholars  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages, 
logic,  natural  philosophy,  mathematics  and  geography;  that  the 
second  consisted  of  17  in  English  grammar,  writing,  arithmetic 
and  accountantship,  and  such  of  them  as  chose  it  were  taught  the 
French  language;  that  the  common  school  or  class  were  taught 
reading,  writing  and  arithmetic ;  that  in  each  of  the  classes  speak- 
ing and  reading  in  public  formed  a  part  of  the  educationjeceived ;  -y- 


4  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

and  that  the  tutors  appeared  attentive  to  the  instruction  and 
morals  of  their  pupils.  In  the  written  record  of  this  interesting 
meeting  which  was  held  before  the  election  of  the  first  president  of 
the  United  States  we  find  the  substantial  outlines  of  (i)  a  curriculum 
for  the  elementary  school,  (2)  a  course  of  study  for  students  prepar- 
ing for  college  and  (3)  a  program  of  studies  adapted  to  students 
whose  education  ends  in  the  secondary  school.  The  same  report 
shows  that  Columbia  College  had  40  students  instructed  in  the  Latin 
and  Greek  languages,  geography,  natural  and  moral  philosophy  and 
the  mathematics. 

At  the  next  meeting  of  the  Regents  held  in  Albany  Dec.  25,  1788, 
after  "sundry  papers  respecting  the  state  of  literature  in  Columbia 
College  and  the  academies  incorporated  by  the  University  were  laid 
before  the  Board,"  it  was  ordered  that  a  committee  suggest  to  the 
Legislature  the  "propriety  of  investing  the  University  with  some 
of  the  lands  belonging  to  the  public."  The  committee  appealed  to 
the  Legislature  in  the  following  words : 

In  our  own  State  it  was  evidently  intended  that  the  University 
should  possess  and  exercise  a  general  superintendence  over  all 
literary  establishments  which  might  be  formed  among  us  and  that 
it  should  direct  the  system  in  such  a  manner  as  would  conduce  to 
the  harmony  and  interests  of  the  whole.  In  the  course  of  our  duty 
we  have  seen  with  regret  that  several  of  the  literary  establishments 
in  this  State  are  destitute  of  funds  for  their  support  and  involved 
in  debt  or  dependent  on  private  bounty. 

.  .  .  Our  attention  would  naturally  extend  not  only  to  sub- 
sisting literary  corporations  but  to  the  erection  of  academies  in  every 
part  of  the  State;  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  most  important  pur- 
poses might  be  attained  by  affording  timely  assistance  to  infant 
seminaries  which  must  otherwise  languish  for  a  time  and  perhaps 
finally  perish  ...  In  this  situation  we  trust  that  it  will  not  be 
deemed  improper  to  suggest  that  the  lands  belonging  to  the  State  at 
Crown  Point,  Ticonderoga  and  Fort  George  .  .  .  would  with 
careful  management  afford  an  income  to  the  University. 

In  accord  with  this  appeal  the  Legislature  Mar.  31,  1790,  passed 
an  act  by  which  the  University  was  invested  with  the  authority  to 
take  possession  of  the  lands  designated  in  their  petition  together 
with  "a  certain  island  lying  within  the  general  bounds  of  the  city 
and  county  of  New  York  commonly  called  and  known  by  the  name 
of  Governors  Island  .  .  .  and  from  time  to  time  to  dispose  of 
and  apply  the  same  for  the  better  advancement  of  science  and  litera- 
ture ...  in  such  manner  and  proportion  as  will  best  answer 
the  ends  of  their  institution. "  By  this  same  act  ^1000  were  appro- 
priated from  the  state  treasury  to  be  applied  by  the  Regents  with- 
out delay  for  the  encouragement  and  promotion  of  science  and 
literature. 


^^<V         HISTORICAL  SKETCH  5 

By  this  act  of  1790  New  York  State  established  the  policy  not 
only  of  setting  aside  funds  for  a  permanent  income  but  also  of 
directly  appropriating  from  the  state  treasury  moneys  to  be  expended 
for  secondary  and  higher  education.  Feb.  7,  1793,  the  principles 
governing  the  apportionment  of  the  literature  fund  were  definitely 
established  and  provided  that  pecuniary  aid  should  be  extended  to 
support  additional  teachers,  to  purchase  indispensable  apparatus 
and  books,  and  to  pay  the  tuition  of  capable,  indigent  students. 
These  rules  were  subsequently  amended  Ap.  17,  181 7,  and  again 
Mar.  18,  1828,  when  the  Regents  ordered  that  the  income  of  the 
literature  fund  should  be  distributed  to  each  of  the  academies  in 
proportion  to  its  number  of  students  in  the  classics  and  in  the 
higher  branches  of  English.  To  establish  a  more  elevated  course 
of  instruction  in  the  academies,  the  Regents  at  that  date  (1828) 
"defining  with  greater  certainty  the  various  branches  of  study" 
which  should  entitle  the  institution  to  a  distributive  share  of  the 
income  of  the  literature  fund,  ordered  (1)  that  no  one  should  be  con- 
sidered a  classical  student  until  he  had  studied  one  half  of  Corderius, 
one  half  of  Historia  Sacra,  one  third  of  Viri  Romae,  two  books  of 
Caesar's  Commentaries  and  the  first  book  of  Virgil's  Aeneid,  (2)  that 
no  one  should  be  considered  a  student  in  the  higher  branches  of 
English  until,  on  examination  duly  made,  he  had  been  found 
qualified  in  reading,  writing,  elementary  arithmetic,  English  gram- 
mar and  geography,  (3)  and  that  both  classical  and  higher  English 
students  must  have  been  in  attendance  at  least  four  months  and 
must  have  been  trained  in  declamation  and  English  composition. 
This  ordinance  of  1828  fixes  the  bounds  of  elementary  instruction, 
establishes  examinations  for  admission  to  the  grade  of  academic 
students  and  contains  the  first  suggestions  of  a  syllabus  for  element- 
ary and  secondary  schools. 

But  50  years  elapsed  before  the  examinations  called  for  in  the 
ordinance  of  1828  were  in  full  operation.  In  1864  the  Regents 
ordered  (1)  that  the  students  in  every  academy  should  be  divided 
into  two  classes  to  be  denominated  preparatory  and  academic;  (2) 
that  preparatory  pupils  should  be  those  who  pursue  studies  pre- 
liminary to  the  higher  branches  of  education,  and  academic  students 
those  who  having  passed  the  examinations  in  preliminary  subjects 
should  pursue  higher  branches  of  English  education  or  the  classics  or 
both;  (3)  that  examinations  should  be  conducted  in  the  presence  and 
under  the  direction  of  a  committee  of  at  least  three  persons;  (4) 
that  to  each  student  sustaining  such  examination  a  certificate 
should  be  given  that  should  entitle  him  without  further  examina- 

257761 


O  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

tion  to  admission  into  any  academy  subject  to  the  visitation  of  the 
Regents.  From  1870  all  answer  papers  of  students  claimed  by 
principals  were  reexamined  at  the  Regents  office,  and  in  June  1878 
examinations  in  20  academic  subjects  were  established  on  the  same 
general   plan. 

Tendencies  apparent  in  the  ordinance  quoted  above  crystallized 
in  chapter  42  5  of  the  laws  of  1 87  7 ,  by  which  the  Regents  were  directed 
to  establish  academic  examinations  and  to  furnish  a  suitable 
standard  of  graduation  and  of  admission  to  college.  A  law  enacted 
in  1880  amended  the  method  of  distributing  the  literature  fund 
among  the  academies,  by  authorizing  the  Regents  to  distribute  not 
more  than  one  fourth  of  this  fund  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
students  that  passed  the  examinations  provided  for  in  the  law  of 
1877.  The  Regents  accordingly  ordered  that  the  sum  of  $10  should 
be  allotted  to  each  academy  for  each  student  who  during  the  pre- 
ceding year  completed  the  examinations  required  for  a  diploma,  and 
$5  for  the  completion  of  the  examinations  for  the  intermediate 
certificate  which  covered  subjects  regarded  as  indispensable  and 
made  obligatory  for  a  diploma.  This  granting  of  public  money  for 
results  obtained  in  examinations  continued  in  force  until  the  year 
1900  when  it  was  abandoned,  and  the  Regents  recurred  to  the 
original  method  of  apportionment  for  attendance. 

Because  the  statutes  required  the  Regents  to  inaugurate  a  system 
of  preliminary  and  academic  examinations,  and  directed  them  to 
establish  a  standard  of  graduation,  it  became  necessary  for  them  to 
prepare  and  issue  a  formal  syllabus  that  should  designate  and  de- 
limit the  subjects  of  study  in  which  students  should  be  examined 
and  on  which  credentials  should  be  issued.  Accordingly  Dr  David 
Murray,  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  issued  in  December 
1880,  a  "summary  of  requirements"  in  the  prefatory  note  to  which 
he  said: 

This  system  of  Regents  examinations,  which  has  now  become  so 
extended,  was  devised  originally  to  provide  an  equitable  standard 
for  the  distribution  of  funds  intrusted  to  the  Board.  It  is  not, 
theAefore,  the  result  of  any  mere  educational  theory,  but  a  practical 
measure  framed  for  the  accomplishment  of  a  definite  and  important 
object.  But  while  this  has  been  sought  as  the  primary  object,  the 
Regents  have  endeavored  to  keep  in  view  the  purpose  which  such  ex- 
aminations may  serve,  in  elevating  and  regulating  the  standard  of 
scholarship  in  the  academies  of  the  State.  They  have  endeavored 
to  keep  them  free  from  the  objections  which  have  been  urged  against 
systems  of  overstimulation  in  education.  The  stimulus  has,  in  this 
case,  been  applied,  not  to  the  scholars,  but  to  the  schools,  and  that 
too  in  the  direction  of  better  and  more  thorough  instruction. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  7 

If  there  is  any  valid  objection  to  competitive  examinations — and 
strong  objections  have  been  urged  against  them,  on  account  of  the 
temptation  they  offer  to  overwork  and  to  hasty  and  superficial 
study — then  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  these  examinations  are 
not  competitive.  The  candidates  are  permitted  to  take  whatever 
time  is  required  for  preparation ;  to  present  the  subjects  in  any  order, 
and  in  any  number;  and  are  allowed  such  liberty  in  the  choice  of 
subjects  as  to  give  due  room  for  variation  in  taste  and  talent.  The 
examinations  are  arranged  to  mark  the  attainment  of  certain 
standards  of  education,  and  there  is  no  limit  to  the  number  of  those 
who  may  attain  these  standards,  nor  any  competitive  distinctions 
between  them  .  .  .  There  is  no  such  system  of  secondary 
instruction  in  any  other  state  in  the  union.  There  may  be  single 
schools  in  other  states  which  are  equal  to,  or  even  better  than,  the 
best  of  New  York ;  but  nowhere  else  are  the  schools  for  secondary 
instruction  submitted  to  such  requirements  as  to  their  equipment, 
and  such  tests  as  to  scholarship,  or  can  show  as  a  result  such  a 
satisfactory  record.  This  gratifying  state  of  things  is  due,  first,  to 
the  liberal  policy  which  the  State  has  from  the  beginning  pursued 
toward  education ;  and  secondly,  to  the  earnest  and  intelligent  work 
of  the  principals  and  teachers,  and  to  their  hearty  cooperation  in 
every  effort  to  advance  the  standards  of  scholarship  in  their  insti- 
tutions. 

In  December  1882  Dr  Murray  in  explaining  the  revision  of  his 
syllabus  writes: 

The  present  syllabus  is  a  revision  of  the  summary  statement  of 
the  system  of  Regents  examinations  which  was  issued  two  years 
ago.  The  Regents  have  received  so  many  proofs  of  the  utility  of 
that  statement  in  facilitating  the  introduction  and  management 
of  these  examinations  in  the  academical  institutions  under  their 
visitation,  that  they  have  deemed  it  expedient  to  issue  it  in  a  revised 
and  more  detailed  form.  The  experience  of  the  past  two  years, 
aided  by  the  friendly  criticisms  ofAprincipals  and  teachers,  has  sug- 
gested various  improvements  in  the  administration  of  the  system, 
which  |will|be  found  here  explained.  The  additional  experience  in 
the  practical  working  of  the  system  of  examinations  has  strength- 
ened the  opinion  that  their  effect  upon  the  schools  and  upon 
the  scholars  is  entirely  salutary.  Besides  their  principal  and  orig- 
inal use  in  providing  a  basis  for  the  distribution  of  the  funds 
intrusted  to  the  Regents,  they  have  served  a  higher  educational 
purpose  in  elevating  and  regulating  the  standard  of  scholarship 
in  the  academies  of  the  State. 

The  edition  of  1888  was  prepared  by  Dr  Albert  B.  Watkins  with 
the  assistance  of  a  committee  appointed  by  the  Convocation  and 
with  the  aid  of  suggestions  from  principals  and  teachers.  It  in- 
cluded a  sketch  of  the  system  of  examinations,  general  regulations, 
the  subjects  of  examinations,  Regents  credentials  and  schedules  of 
study.  The  Associated  Academic  Principals  manifested  a  profound 
interest  in  the  questions  at  issue  by  discussing  the  subjects  to  be 


8  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

taught,  the  methods  of  instruction,  the  time  allotted  to  each  subject 
and  its  position  in  a  normal  curriculum.  The  five  years'  experience 
gained  under  the  first  syllabus  offered  ample  field  for  accurate 
criticism  and  fixed  the  time  limit  for  future  editions.  The  enormous 
development  of  secondary  schools  by  the  formation  of  academic 
departments  materially  broadened  the  field  of  view  and  involved 
problems  of  administration  calling  for  the  readjustment  of  curricu- 
lums,  the  lengthening  of  the  period  of  study  and  the  lessening  of 
the  number  of  examinations. 

The  edition  of  1891  was  edited  by  Dr  James  Russell  Parsons  jr, 
under  the  direction  of  Dr  Watkins.  It  contained  a  syllabus  of 
subjects  in  which  regular  examinations  were  held  to  meet  the 
varying  needs  of  the  secondary  schools  of  the  State.  Of  69  subjects 
outlined  34  were  required  for  the  English  and  classical  diplomas. 
As  a  result  of  suggestions  and  criticisms  from  principals  and  teachers 
some  important  changes  were  made  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  work  required  from  the  schools.  Suggestions  were  offered 
looking  towards  improvement  in  methods  of  teaching,  several  courses 
in  English  were  added  to  the  list,  general  history  and  advanced 
arithmetic  were  included  among  the  subjects  for  examination,  and 
three  year  courses  in  French  and  German  were  provided. 

The  syllabus  of  1891  passed  through  10  editions,  there  having  been 
a  surprising  demand  for  copies  in  this  and  other  countries.  It 
received  favorable  comment  in  school  reviews  at  home  and  abroad 
and  some  of  the  prescribed  courses  were  translated  for  the  benefit 
of  foreign  teachers. 

The  edition  of  1895  which  was  prepared  by  Dr  James  Russell 
Parsons  jr,  Director  of  Examinations,  contained  six  preliminary 
and  71  academic  subjects  in  which  regular  examinations  were  held. 
This  revision  introduced  several  important  changes:  the  examina- 
tion formerly  held  in  November  was  discontinued;  schools  were 
urged  to  hold  two  examinations  annually  instead  of  three;  full 
four  year  courses  were  required  for  all  graduating  academic  cre- 
dentials; academic  certificates  were  given  for  all  preliminaries  and 
any  24,  36,  48,  60  etc.  counts,  if  one  sixth  of  the  24,  36  and  48  counts 
were  in  English-;  no  diploma  was  given  that  did  not  include  all 
preliminaries  and  48  academic  counts  of  which  eight  were  in  English 
and  not  less  than  six  from  each  of  the  mathematics,  science  and  his- 
tory groups;  new  courses  in  English  for  the  first,  second  and  third 
years,  in  English  classics  from  the  Greek,  Latin,  German  and  French, 
in  spheric  trigonometry  and  in  home  science  were  added  together 
with  two  reading  courses  in  United  States  history ;  psychology  and 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  9 

ethics  were  discontinued;  an  allowance  of  $5  was  made  for  each 
regular  academic  certificate  issued  and  $5  extra  for  the-first  diploma; 
and  the  premium  of  $5  on  the  classical  diploma  instituted  in  1882 
was  discontinued. 

The  edition  of  1900  was  prepared  by  Head  Inspector  Charles  F. 
Wheelock  under  the  direction  of  Dr  James  Russell  Parsons  jr,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Regents.  The  number  of  academic 
subjects  in  which  examinations  had  been  previously  given  was 
reduced  from  75  to  61;  four  new  subjects  were  added  in  manual 
training,  and  nine  in  business  branches,  making  a  total  of  74. 
Eleven  subjects  in  English  were  substituted  for  the  17  found  in  the 
edition  of  1895.  Outlines  for  three  years'  work  in  Spanish  were 
added,  similar  to  those  for  German  and  French.  In  this  edition 
outlines  for  laboratory  work  in  physics  and  chemistry  appeared  for 
the  first  time,  and  two  years  later  students  from  schools  maintaining 
laboratory  courses  in  science  under  regulations  prescribed  by  the 
Department,  were  allowed  20  credits  towards  their  examinations. 
The  Business  Syllabus  was  primarily  devised  for  private  schools, 
but  in  1905  more  than  40  public  high  schools  had  established  four 
year  commercial  courses  and  more  than  70  had  incorporated  into 
their  academic  curriculum  not  less  than  five  of  the  business  subjects 
outlliyi  in  the  syllabus. 

A  general  view  of  the  growth  in  the  number  of  secondary  schools 
and  students  and  in  the  system  of  examinations  is  presented  in  the 
two  following  tables  of  statistics. 

NUMBER  OF  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  AND  STUDENTS 


Date 

Schools 

Students 

1787 

2 

79 

1804 

17 

993 

1855 

I7I 

22  824 

1864 

20I 

23  035 

1874 

2l8 

31  463 

1884 

260 

34  162 

1894 

5°4 

49  937 

1904 

799 

102  279 

10 


NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 


EXAMINATIONS 


PRELIMINARY 


School  year       Written  Claimed] Allowed 


1866-67 5i   689 

1873-74 70  744 

1883-84  , 85  446 


24   123 

28   726 
38   153 


1893-94 1179   265  119  348 


34   688 
99   46i 


i903-4    231    388184  042174   274 


Written  Claimed  Allowed 


45  876 
192  611 
333  50I 


Written  Claimed! Allowed 


25  856  23  229I131  322 
132  939  121  402I371  876 
262  594220  898564  889 


64  009I  57  917 
252  287  220  863 
446  636 397   172 


The  comparison  is  made  between  the  whole  number  of  answer 
papers  written  by  the  students,  the  number  claimed  to  be  up  to  the 
passing  mark  by  the  principals  and  the  number  accepted  on  review 
in  the  office  of  the  Regents. 

In   November    1865   printed  preliminary   question   papers   were 
sent  to  the  schools  for  the  first  time.     Answer  papers  were  first 
reviewed  in  the  office  in  1870.      In  June  1878  academic  question^ 
papers  were  sent  to  the  schools  for  the  first  time. 

INTRODUCTORY  NOTES 

This  syllabus  has  been  prepared  to  indicate  the  general  scope  and 
character  of  the  instruction  to  be  given  by  the  teacher  and  the  work 
to  be  done  by  the  student.  By  this  means  it  is  expected  that 
adequate  attention  will  be  given  to  the  essentials  of  each  subject, 
that  approved  principles  of  teaching  will  be  observed  and  that 
embarrassment  to  students  in  examinations  arising  from  defective 
methods  of  instruction  or  the  use  of  different  textbooks,  may  be 
obviated.  It  is  not  designed,  however,  to  interfere  with  such  flexi- 
bility in  courses  of  study  and  freedom  in  methods  of  instruction  as 
ought  to  exist  in  secondary  schools;  but  to  indicate  sub- 
jects of  study  for  elementary  and  secondary  schools  and  to  present 
outlines  of  these  subjects  in  the  form  of  graded  series  of  suggested 
texts  for  the  study  of  English  and  the  foreign  languages,  lists  of 
topics  and  experiments  for  the  laboratory  sciences,  definitions  of 
standard  requirements  in  mathematics  and  topical  analyses  for 
history  and  other  subjects. 

The  list  of  subjects  included  in  the  syllabus  of  1905  is  as  follows: 


Reading 
Writing 
Spelling 
English 


Preliminary  subjects 

Arithmetic 
Geography 
United  States  history  with  civics 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTES 


r  r 


Academic  subjects 

Group  I — Language  and  literature 


ENGLISH 


(4  First  year  English) 
(3   Second  year  English) 
3  Third  year  English 
3   Fourth  year  English 


2   English  grammar 
2   History  of  the  English  lan- 
guage and  literature 


ANCIENT 


(5  First  year  Latin) 
1   Latin  grammar 
1   Elementary    Latin    compo- 
sition 

3  Caesar 

4  Cicero 
4  Virgil 

1   Latin  composition 
1  Translation  of  prose  at  sight 
1  Translation    of    poetry    at 
sight 


(5  First  year  Greek) 

1   Greek  grammar 

1  Elementary  Greek  compo- 
sition 

3  Anabasis 

3  Iliad 

1   Greek  composition 

1  Translation  of  prose  at  sight 

1  Translation  of  Homer  at 
sight 


MODERN   FOREIGN 


(5  First  year  German) 
5  Elementary  German 
5  Intermediate  German 
5  Advanced  German 
(5  First  year  French) 
5  Elementary  French 


5  Intermediate  French 
5  Advanced  French 
(5  First  year  Spanish) 
5  Elementary  Spanish 
5  Intermediate  Spanish 


Group  II — Mathematics 

2  Advanced  arithmetic  5  Plane  geometry 

5  Elementary  algebra 

2  Intermediate  algebra 

3  Advanced  algebra 


2  Solid  geometry 
2  Trigonometry 


Group  III- 

5     Physics 

5     Chemistry 

5     Biology 

2\  Elementary  botany 

i\  Elementary  zoology 


-Science 

2\  Physiology  and  hygiene 
5  Advanced  botany 
5  Advanced  zoology 
5  Physical  geography 
3  Agriculture 


Group  IV — History  and  social  science 
3  or  5  Ancient  history  5  American  history  with  civics 


3  or  5  European  history 
3  or  5  English  history 


Civics 
Economics 


12  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 


Group  V — But 

nness  subjects 

Elementary  bookkeeping 
Advanced  bookkeeping 
Business  practice  and  tech- 
nics 

Business  arithmetic 
Commercial  law- 
History  of  commerce 

3  Commercial  geography 

2  Business  correspondence 
i   Business  writing 

3  Stenography  (50  words) 

3  Stenography  (100  words) 
2  Typewriting 

Group  VI — Other  subjects 

History    and    principles    of 

education 

Psychology  and  principles  of 

education 

Drawing 

3  Advanced  drawing 
2  First  year  home  science 
2  Second  year  home  science 
2  First  year  shopwork 
2  Second  year  shopwork 

The  numerals  prefixed  to  the  subjects  in  the  above  list  indicate 
the  number  of  lessons  a  week  for  a  year  and  also  the  number  of 
counts  to  be  earned  thereby. 

Examinations.  Examination  questions  are  to  be  based  upon  the 
syllabus,  but  the  instruction  of  the  schools  and  the  tests  of  the 
Department  may  fairly  be  expected  to  give  recognition  to  im- 
portant discoveries  in  science  and  such  significant  changes  among 
the  nations  as  shall  result  in  modifications  of  territorial  limits  or 
systems  of  government.  The  plea  that  particular  textbooks  are 
deficient  will  not  be  accepted  in  extenuation  of  inadequate  knowl- 
edge. Special  efforts  will  be  made  to  state  examination  questions 
clearly  and  not  to  demand  a  degree  of  knowledge  or  skill  in  state- 
ment that  may  not  reasonably  be  required  from  students  in  second- 
ary schools.  On  the  other  hand  the  schools  should  contribute  their 
share  towards  the  success  of  the  examinations  by  not  permitting 
their  students  to  attempt  them  until  they  have  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted the  work  prescribed  by  the  syllabus.  Special  attention  is 
called  to  the  following  slightly  modified  quotation  taken  from  the 
High  School  Department  Report  of  1898: 

A  system  of  examinations  adapted  to  the  work  of  all  the  schools 
of  a  great  state  must  of  necessity  be  somewhat  different  from  one 
intended  for  the  students  of  a  single  school.  The  personality  of  the 
teacher,  the  local  environment  and  the  textbook  used  all  tend  to  vary 
the  work  done  in  the  different  schools.  As  a  result  the  exact  course 
covered  in  any  subject  and  the  emphasis  given  to  the  different  parts 
of  it  will  not  be  precisely  the  same  in  any  two  schools  in  the  Univer- 
sity. This  is  as  it  should  be ,  for  were  it  not  so  the  work  would  lack  in- 
dividuality and  life.  To  provide  for  these  conditions  the  Academic 
Syllabus  gives,  in  general  terms,  very  full  outlines  of  the  subjects  in 
which  examinations  are  held.     These  outlines  are  in  fact  so  full  that 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTES  1 3 

it  will  be  quite  impossible  for  any  one  class  in  the  time  allotted  to 
study  exhaustively  all  the  topics  mentioned,  and  no  one  textbook 
would  furnish  the  material  for  such  exhaustive  study.  It  is 
here  that  the  alternative  or  group  system  of  questions  comes  in  to 
give  relief.  This  gives  the  student  a  chance  to  show  what  he  knows, 
which  is  quite  a  different  thing  from  an  attempt  to  find  out  what  he 
does  not  know.  If  a  question  paper  has  been  properly  prepared 
and  a  class  has  been  properly  instructed,  each  candidate  should  find 
on  the  paper  some  questions  that  relate  to  matters  which  have  not 
been  taken  up  in  detail  in  his  study  of  the  subject.  If  this  is  not  the 
case  it  is  evidence  either  that  the  questions  have  not  been  properly 
distributed  over  the  whole  field,  or  that  the  instruction  and  study 
have  been  distributed  over  too  much  of  the  field.  If  teachers 
and  students  will  take  this  attitude  toward  the  examination  system, 
all  of  its  limiting  and  hampering  effects  will  disappear  and  it  will  be, 
as  it  is  intended  to  be,  stimulating  in  the  best  sense.  The  teacher 
who  expects  to  train  a  class  of  students  in  40  weeks  to  answer  any 
legitimate  question  in  any  branch  of  science  or  history  or  literature,  or 
who  leads  his  students  to  expect  to  do  it,  must  certainly  have  a  very 
narrow  view  both  of  the  subject-matter  studied  and  of  the  mind 
of  the  student. 

Complying  with  a  vote  of  the  Associated  Academic  Principals  the 
Department  beginning  with  the  class  entering  the  secondary  school 
in  September  1905,  will  issue  two  examinations  in  English:  the  first 
to  cover  the  work  of  the  first  three  years  (10  counts),  the  second  to 
test  the  work  of  the  fourth  year  (3  counts). 

The  reasons  presented  for  the  abolishment  of  the  first  and  second 
year  tests  in  English  seem  to  be  equally  applicable  to  the  first  year 
examinations  in  the  foreign  languages.  Accordingly  students  omit- 
ting the  first  year  examinations  in  German,  French  or  Spanish  will 
be  credited  with  10  counts  on  passing  the  "elementary  "  examinations 
in  each  of  those  languages  which  will  be  designed  to  test  the  work  of 
the  first  two  years.  In  like  manner,  students  omitting  the  first 
year  examinations  in  Latin  and  Greek  will  receive  double  credits  on 
passing  the  tests  in  Caesar  (6),  Latin  grammar  (2),  elementary 
Latin  composition  (2) ,  Xenophon  (6) ,  Greek  grammar  (2) ,  elementary 
Greek  composition  (2).  The  Department  believes  it  to  be  for  the 
good  of  the  schools  to  lessen  the  number  and  frequency  of  formal 
examinations  given  to  immature  students,  but  first  year  question 
papers  in  the  foreign  languages  and  in  first  year  and  second  year 
English  will  be  issued  to  junior  and  middle  schools,  and  to  other 
schools  on  request. 

Credentials.  After  mature  deliberation  the  Department  has 
decided  to  base  the  academic  diploma  upon  a  four  year  curriculum 
which  requires  a  student  to  pursue  four  subjects  of  study  at  a  time 
with  at  least  18  lessons  a  week.     This  increase  in  the  requirements 


14  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

has  been  made  for  the  following  reasons:  (i)  an  investigation  made 
by  the  Department  in  1902  showed  that  the  average  number  of  les- 
sons a  week  for  students  in  the  high  schools  of  the  State  was  gyflW 
(2)  the  records  of  the  Department  show  that  a  majority  of  stu- 
dents under  the  requirement  of  15  lessons  a  week  obtain,  on  the 
average,  a  four  year  diploma  in  three  years;  (3)  a  broad  and  symmet- 
rical secondary  school  education  can  not  now  be  acquired  by  a  stu- 
dent pursuing  less  than  four  subjects  simultaneously;  (4)  the  re- 
quirements for  admission  to  normal  schools,  training  schools,  col- 
leges and  technical  schools  make  it  necessary.  The  wisdom  of  this 
decision  is  amply  supported  by  the  experience  of  France  and  Ger- 
many in  the  corresponding  years  of  whose  secondary  schools  the 
average  number  of  lessons  a  week  is  respectively  25  and  30. 

This  increase  of  requirements  makes  necessary  a  corresponding 
change  in  the  system  of  "counts."  Hitherto  12  counts  have  been 
given  for  a  year's  work  of  1 5  lessons  a  week — 48  counts  for  a  diploma. 
Hereafter  18  counts  will  be  given  for  a  year's  work  of  18  lessons  a 
week — 72  counts  for  a  diploma. 

The  proposed  increased  requirement  of  18  lessons  a  week  will  go 
into  operation  in  September  1905  but  is  not  to  be  retroactive. 
Therefore  the  number  of  counts  required  under  the  new  scheme  of 
values  for  an  academic  diploma  will  be  as  follows : 

To  June  1 ,  1 906 48  counts 

Between  June  1,  1906,  and  June  1,  1907 63  counts 

Between  June  1,  1907,  and  June  1,  1908 66  counts 

Between  June  1,  1908,  and  June  1,  1909 69  counts 

June  1,  1909,  and  thereafter 72  counts 

All  credits  earned  before  June  1 ,  1906,  will  be  recorded  as  hitherto. 
When  these  credits  are  applied  to  credentials  issued  subsequent  to 
June  1,  1906,  their  value  will  be  increased  25%,  since  12  counts 
under  one  scheme  of  values  are  exactly  equal  to  1 5  under  the  other. 

To  enable  the  Department  to  issue  examinations  that  shall  fully 
protect  the  rights  and  interests  of  weak  or  slowly  developing 
students  and,  at  the  same  time  test  adequately  the  knowledge  and 
training  of  the  most  capable,  the  following  system  of  differentiated 
credentials  has  been  adopted  and  will  go  into  operation  with  the 
class  that  shall  be  graduated  in  June  1909. 

1  A  diploma  based  upon  a  general  average  of  65. 

2  A  diploma,  with  credit,  based  on  a  general  average  of  75. 

3  A  diploma,  with  great  credit,  based  on  a  general  average  of  85. 

4  A  diploma,  with  highest  credit,  based  on  a  general  average  of  90. 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTES  1 5 

In  computing  general  averages  the  rating  of  any  answer  paper  not 
below  60  may  be  included. 

The  requirements  for  the  academic  diploma  which  is  issued  only 
to  students  taking  the  Department's  preliminary  and  academic 
examinations,  are  as  follows:  English  13  credits,  mathematics  10, 
history  10,  science  10,  elective  29.  For  the  classical  academic 
diploma:  English  13  credits,  mathematics  10,  history  5,  science  5, 
Latin  20,  a  second  foreign  language  15,  elective  4.  These  new 
requirements  go  into  effect  June  1,  1909. 


GROUP  i 

LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 

ENGLISH 

[2        First  year  English  English  grammar 

Second  year  English  History  of  the  English 

Third  year  English  language  and  literature 
Fourth  year  English 

The  syllabus  that  follows  is  of  necessity  general,  since  it  is  de- 
signed for  schools  working  under  widely  different  conditions.  It  is 
suggested,  therefore,  that  each  school  work  out  for  itself  a  more 
detailed  syllabus  based  upon  this  and  supplementing  it  in  various 
places.  The  books  for  reading  and  study  are  for  the  class  entering 
the  high  school  in  September  1905,  and  for  succeeding  classes. 

1  The  elements  of  the  course  of  study  in  English  are  literature, 
composition  and  rhetoric  and  grammar. 

2  Literature,  (a)  The  books  prescribed  are  selected  from  those 
specified  in  the  uniform  requirements  recommended  by  a  conference 
composed  of  delegates  from  the  four  associations  of  colleges  and 
preparatory  schools  in  New  England,  the  Middle  States,  the  North 
Central  States,  and  the  South.  It  is  expected,  however,  that  each 
school  will  add  to  this  list  as  many  books  as  can  be  read  to  advan- 
tage in  the  time  devoted  to  English.  The  degree  of  intensity  with 
which  any  of  these  shall  be  studied,  and  the  assignment  of  them  for 
class  work  or  for  home  reading  are  left  to  the  option  of  each  school. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  a  few  books  well  read  have  much 
greater  educational  value  than  many  books  read  superficially,  and 
yet  that  a  work  studied  too  long  or  too  minutely  dulls  the  student's 
interest  and  thereby  impairs  his  power  to  prosecute  the  study  of 
literature  with  pleasure  and  profit. 

(b)  In  order  to  encourage  the  habit  of  reading  good  books,  care- 
fully selected  lists  should  be  prepared  to  guide  students  in  supple- 
mentary reading.  These  should  illustrate  some  principle  of  selec- 
tion. They  should  be  chosen,  for  example,  because  of  their  direct 
appeal  to  the  interests  of  the  student ;  or  because  of  their  relation  to 
some  literary  type  or  period;  or  because  of  their  value  in  connection 
with  some  special  phase  of  work  in  composition.  The  teacher 
should  assist  the  student  in  the  selection  of  books,  and  should  require 
written  reports  and  conduct  class  discussions  on  books  read  out  of 

school. 

16 


ENGLISH  17 

(c)  In  the  reading  and  study  of  books  the  student  not  only  should 
gain  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  selected  texts  but  also  should 
give  due  consideration  to  the  literary  epochs  and  types  represented 
by  these  texts  and  should  memorize  choice  selections  of  prose  and 
poetry. 

3  Composition  and  rhetoric.  Certain  kinds  of  composition  are 
definitely  prescribed  for  the  several  terms,  but  this  should  not  be 
interpreted  to  mean  that  only  one  form  should  be  practised  during 
a  term.  On  the  contrary,  the  work  of  every  term  should  include 
practice  in  the  forms  studied  in  previous  terms.  To  secure  variety 
students  may  be  called  upon  to  write  stories,  anecdotes,  abstracts, 
character  sketches,  descriptions  of  persons  and  places,  news  items, 
editorials,  and  imaginative  themes  suggested  by  the  literature. 
Although  most  of  the  compositions  required  may  properly 
be  short,  at  least  one  each  term  should  be  long  enough  to 
demand  some  sustained  effort.  When  completed  it  should  repre- 
sent the  student's  best  possible  work  in  writing  English.  To  this 
end  care  should  be  taken  that  the  subject  chosen  be  one  that  is 
within  the  grasp  and  experience  of  the  student,  or  one  that 
may  easily  be  made  the  subject  of  investigation.  A  discriminat- 
ing study  of  models  is  advantageous  if  not  carried  to  an  extreme. 
The  preparation  of  outlines  before  compositions  are  written  is  help- 
ful in  securing  unity,  coherence  and  proportion.  Students  should  be 
trained  to  correct  their  own  mistakes. 

A  knowledge  of  rhetoric  is  of  value  only  as  it  is  related  to  the 
study  of  literature  and  composition.  Hence  familiarity  with  the 
elements  and  terminology  of  rhetoric  should  be  developed  gradually 
from  a  material  found  in  literature  and  put  into  use  in  the  com- 
positions of  the  students.  Moreover,  students  should  have  .acquaint- 
ance with  the  main  characteristics  of  the  more  important  literary 
types,  such  as  the  epic,  lyric,  essay,  novel  and  drama.  Adequate 
attention  should  be  given  to  versification  in  the  study  of  poetry  and 
to  figures  of  speech  as  they  occur  in  the  literature  read. 

4  Oral  expression.  In  connection  with  all  work  in  English, 
particularly  in  the  first  year,  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  de- 
velopment of  clearness  in  oral  expression.  Students  should  not 
only  be  helped  in  every  way  to  overcome  common  errors  in  speech, 
but  should  also  be  trained  to  express  themselves  clearly  and  forcibly 
in  sustained  discourse.  In  this  work  constant  attention  should  be 
given  to  distinctness  of  utterance,  to  pronunciation,  inflection  and 
phrasing. 

5  Grammar.  The  study  of  grammar  has  been  distributed 
throughout  the  various  half  years  on  the  principle  that  the  work  will 


1 8  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

be  done  better  and  more  easily  if  it  is  kept  constantly  in  the  minds 
of  the  students.  As  students  pass  from  the  first  year  to  the  second 
and  from  the  second  to  the  third,  more  and  more  should  be  expected 
of  them  in  the  way  of  accurate  and  logical  thinking.  The  study  of 
the  functions  of  the  various  elements  of  the  sentence  should  help 
them  better  to  understand  thought  and  to  express  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  training  in  thinking  and  in  expressing  thought  should  help 
them  to  understand  the  various  grammatical  relations.  The  study 
of  grammar  is  subordinate  to  the  study  of  literature  and  composition. 
The  degree  of  intensity  with  which  it  shall  be  pursued  must  be  left 
to  the  option  of  each  school;  but  it  is  not  expected  that  any  school 
will  deal  with  difficult  idioms  or  grammatical  puzzles. 

Before  they  leave  the  high  school,  however,  students  should  be 
able  to  explain  the  common  grammatical  relations  of  the  sentence 
as  they  are  found  in  the  prose  and  verse  of  standard  literature. 
Analysis  and  parsing  when  used  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
literature  should  be  employed  only  for  the  purpose  of  elucidating 
difficult  constructions  or  involved  sentences.  Baser  material  will 
serve  the  purpose  of  practice  exercises. 

6  Spelling  and  punctuation.  Throughout  the  course  instruction 
is  to  be  given  in  spelling  and  punctuation,  as  the  need  may  arise. 
The  range  of  instruction  in  spelling  should  include  proper  names 
occurring  in  the  literature  read,  words  misspelled  in  compositions, 
and  in  general,  all  words  in  the  student's  vocabulary.  During 
the  earlier  part  of  the  course  only  a  few  of  the  more  important 
principles  of  punctuation  should  be  reviewed;  but  before  the  close 
of  the  fourth  year,  every  student  should  have  received  such  instruc- 
tion as  will  enable  him  to  punctuate  fully  and  accurately. 

7  Additional  suggestions,  (a)  Throughout  the  course  students 
should  be  taught  incidentally  how  to  use  dictionaries,  encyclopedias, 
and  general  works  of  reference. 

(b)  Students  should  acquire  a  general  knowledge  of  the  history 
of  the  English  language. 

(c)  There  should  be  close  correlation  between  work  in  English 
and  other  branches  of  school  activity.  In  part  this  may  be  accom- 
plished by  selecting  as  the  subject-matter  of  composition,  informa- 
tion acquired  by  students  in  other  departments. 

(d)  Teachers  should  encourage  a  systematic  use  of  the  library  to 
aid  in  the  study  of  literature  and  to  give  to  students  experience  in 
collecting  data,  in  judging  of  the  relative  importanoe  of  historical 
and  biographical  facts,  and  in  using  matter  thus  obtained  in  oral 
and  written  compositions. 


ENGLISH  19 

FIRST  YEAR 

FIRST    HALF 

Literature.  The  general  purpose  of  teaching  literature  in  the 
first  year  is  to  arouse  an  interest  in  reading,  to  teach  how  to  read  and 
to  develop,  through  reading,  the  power  to  form  vivid  mental  pic- 
tures. To  this  end  books  should  be  selected,  first  of  all,  for  their 
wholesome  interest  to  boys  and  girls.  They  should  be  chosen,  also 
with  a  view  to  multiply  the  student's  interests  and  thus  to  prepare 
him  to  read  other  books  to  advantage.  Some,  for  example,  may 
treat  of  chivalry,  some  of  romance,  others  of  history,  and  still  others 
of  the  classic  myths  and  medieval  legends. 

Required  for  reading.     One  from  each  of  the  following  groups: 
I  Coleridge.     The  Ancient  Mariner 
Macaulay.     Lays  of  Ancient  Rome 
Lowell.     The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal 
II  Scott.     Ivanhoe 

Dickens.     A  Tale  of  Two  Cities 
Gaskell.     Cranford 
Suggested.     Narratives  in  both  prose  and  verse  by  various  authors, 
for  example,    Scott,    Cooper,    Tennyson,    Hawthorne,    Long- 
fellow, Whittier,  Stevenson  and  Kipling,  and  a  good  translation 
of  the  Iliad  or  the  Odyssey. 
Composition   and   rhetoric.     The    general    purpose    of    teaching 
composition  and  rhetoric  in  the  first  year  is  to  secure  facility  in 
expression,  with  some  degree  of  accuracy.     To  this  end  students 
should  write  many  compositions.     While  the  criticism  of  the  teacher 
must  be  concerned  with  matters  of  grammar,  spelling  and  punctua- 
tion it  should  be  largely  constructive. 

The  work  of  the  term  shall  be  as  follows: 

1  Letter  writing  with  attention  to  substance  as  well  as  to  form. 

2  Short  themes,  both  oral  and  written,  based  on  the  experience 
of  the  student  and  on  the  literature  of  the  term.  Emphasis  shall 
be  laid  on  narration. 

3  A  review  of  capitalization  and  of  the  simpler  principles  of 
punctuation.  Elementary  study  of  the  principles  of  unity  and  co- 
herence as  applied  to  the  whole  composition  and  to  sentences  in 
compositions. 

Grammar.  The  analysis  of  easy  sentences  and  the  application  of 
the  principles  of  grammar  in  composition. 


20  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

FIRST  YEAR 

SECOND    HALF 

Literature 

Required  for  reading.     One  from  each  of  the  following  groups: 
I  Irving.     Sketch  book 
Lamb.     Essays  of  Elia 
Bacon.     Essays 
II  Browning.     Cavalier  Tunes,  The  Lost    Leader,    How   They 
Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent  to  Aix,  Evelyn  Hope, 
Home  Thoughts  from  Abroad,  Home  Thoughts  from  the 
Sea,    Incident   of   the    French   Camp,  The  Boy  and  the 
Angel,  One  Word  More,  Herve  Riel,  Pheidippides 
Tennyson.     Gareth  and  Lynette,  Lancelot  and  Elaine,  The 

Passing  of  Arthur 
Palgrave.     Golden  Treasury    (first   series),   book   IV,   with 
special  attention  to  Wordsworth,  Keats  and  Shelley 
Suggested:     Descriptive  literature  by   various   authors,   for  ex- 
ample, Hawthorne,  Lowell,  Gray,  Goldsmith,  Poe,  Blackmore, 
Burroughs  and  Irving 
Composition  and  rhetoric.     The  work  of  the  term  shall  be  as 
follows : 

i  Short  compositions,  both  oral  and  written,  based  on  the  ex- 
perience of  the  student  and  on  the  literature  read.  Emphasis  shall 
be  laid  on  description.  The  subjects  chosen  should  be  simple  in 
character,  and  should  relate  to  what  the  student  has  seen  in  real 
life  or  in  imagination. 

2  Elementary  study  of  unity  and  coherence  in  the  composition 
and  in  the  sentence.     The  function  of  the  paragraph. 

Grammar.     Continuation  of  the  work  of  the  previous  half  year. 

SECOND  YEAR 

FIRST    HALF 

Literature.  The  general  purpose  of  teaching  literature  in  the 
second  year  is  to  arouse  an  interest  in  good  books  and  to  develop 
power  to  think  accurately. 

Required  for  reading.     One  from  each  of  the  following  groups : 
I  The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers  in  the  Spectator 
Bunyan.     The  Pilgrim's  Progress,  part  I 
Franklin.     Autobiography 
II  Shakspere.      As    You   Like    It,   The    Merchant   of    Venice, 
Twelfth  Night 


ENGLISH  21 

Composition  and  rhetoric.  The  general  purpose  of  teaching  com- 
position and  rhetoric  in  the  second  year  is  to  secure  clearness  of 
thought  in  exposition  and  argument. 

The  work  of  the  term  shall  be  as  follows: 

i  Short  themes,  both  oral  and  written,  of  various  types.  Em- 
phasis should  be  laid  on  exposition.  The  subjects  chosen  should  be 
for  the  most  part  concrete,  carefully  limited,  and  within  the  stu- 
dent's experience.     Practice  should  be  given  in  defining  terms. 

2  Further  study  of  paragraph  structure  with  respect  to  unity, 
coherence  and  emphasis;  the  use  of  the  topic  sentence;  connec- 
tives ;  the  methods  of  transition. 

Grammar.  Study  of  tenses  and  modes;  their  distinctions  in 
meaning;  consistency  in  their  use  in  composition. 


SECOND  YEAR 

SECOND  HALF 

Literature 

Required  for  reading.     One  from  each  of  the  following  groups: 
I  George  Eliot.     Silas  Marner 

Goldsmith.     The  Vicar  of  Wakefield 
Hawthorne.     The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables 
'  II  Goldsmith.     The  Deserted  Village 

Palgrave.     Golden  Treasury  (first  series),  books  II  and  III, 
with  special  attention  to  Dryden,  Collins,  Gray,  Cowper 
and  Burns 
Pope.     The  Rape  of  the  Lock 
Composition  and  rhetoric.     The  work  of  the  term  shall   be   as 
follows : 

i   Short  themes  in  narration,  description  and  exposition. 

2  Elementary  argumentation,  oral  and  written,  based  upon 
questions  familiar  to  the  student.  Students  should  have  practice 
in  framing  propositions  on  topics  of  interest  to  them,  in  defining 
terms,  and  in  differentiating  introduction,  proof,  and  conclusion. 
Emphasis  should  be  laid  on  the  distinction  between  assertion  and 
proof. 

3  Kinds  of  sentences:  long  and  short,  periodic  and  loose,  balanced, 
rhetorical  question,  etc.  Variety  in  sentence  structure.  Unity, 
coherence  and  emphasis  in  the  sentence. 

Grammar.  Continuation  of  the  work  of  the  previous  half  year 
with  emphasis  on  connectives  and  the  various  functions  of  phrases 
and  clauses. 


22  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

THIRD  YEAR 

FIRST    HALF 

Literature.     The  general  purpose  of  teaching  literature  in  the 
third  year  is  to  develop  power  to  discriminate  and  compare  literary 
types  and  values,  and  to  stimulate  a  finer  feeling  for  literature. 
Required  for  reading.     One  from  each  of  the  following  groups: 
I  De  Quincey.     Joan  of  Arc  and  the  English  Mail  Coach 
Emerson.     Essays  (selected) 
Ruskin.     Sesame  and  Lilies 
II  Shakspere.     Henry  V,  Julius  Caesar 
Composition   and    rhetoric.     The   general    purpose  of    teaching 
composition  and  rhetoric  in  the  third  year  is  to  develop  in  students 
the  power  to  express  their  ideas  with  simplicity,  accuracy,  and  full- 
ness. 

The  work  of  the  term  shall  be  as  follows: 
i  Short  themes  of  various  types. 

2  Narration,  which  shall  include  anecdotes,  historical  sketches, 
biographical  sketches,  and  stories  with  simple  plots. 

3  Continued  study  of  exposition  and  argumentation  which  shall 
include  the  study  of  various  methods  of  paragraph  development 
and  shall  be  pursued  with  increasing  insistence  on  unity,  coherence, 
and  emphasis  in  the  paragraph. 

4  Study  of  diction;  synonyms  and  antonyms;  specific  and 
general  terms ;  words  frequently  confused. 

Grammar.  Study  of  the  various  functions  of  the  infinitive  and 
the  participle. 

THIRD  YEAR 

SECOND    HALF 

Literature.  A  review  of  the  books  read  in  the  preceding  terms 
with  some  attention  to  the  literary  history  of  the  epochs  which  they 
represent.1 

Composition  and  rhetoric.  The  work  of  the  term  shall  be  as  fol- 
lows: 

i  Short  themes  of  various  types. 

2  Description:  the  requirements  shall  show  a  distinct  advance 
over  those  in  the  first  year  in  variety  of  subject  and  method  of  treat- 
ment.    Description  of  persons,  of  landscapes,  of  buildings,  of  scenes 

i Students  taking  the  first,  second  and  third  year  examinations  in  English  will  omit  the 
review  of  books  read  in  preceding  terms,  and  instead  take  Julius  Caesar  the  fifth  term  and 
Henry  V  the  sixth  term. 


ENGLISH  23 

of  action,  and  descriptions  from  both  fixed  and  moving  points  of 
view  are  all  illustrations  of  the  variety  of  the  problems  that  may  be 
assigned. 

3  Continued  work  in  exposition  which  shall  include  at  least  one 
theme  of  some  length  carefully  developed  through  a  preliminary 
outline,  and  demanding  clear  explanation  of  a  somewhat  complex, 
though  familiar  object  of  first-hand  knowledge. 

4  Continuation  of  the  study  of  diction,  especially  in  connection 
with  work  in  description.  Furthur  study  of  the  structure  of  the 
whole  composition  and  of  the  methods  of  paragraph  development. 

Grammar.  A  systematic  review  of  the  principles  of  English 
grammar. 

FOURTH  YEAR 

FIRST    HALF 

Literature.  The  general  purpose  of  teaching  literature  in  the 
fourth  year  is  to  develop  the  insight  and  the  breadth  of  view  result- 
ing from  the  application  of  the  lessons  of  literature  to  the  problems 
of  life. 

Required  for  study. 

Burke.     Speech  on  Conciliation  with  America, 

or 
f  Washington.     Farewell  Address  and  ) 
\  Webster.     First  Bunker  Hill  Oration  j 

and 
Milton.     Lycidas,  Comus,  L'allegro,  and  II  penseroso 
Composition  and  rhetoric.     The    general    purpose    of    teaching 
composition  and  rhetoric  in  the  fourth  year  is  to  develop  power  to 
reason  soundly,  and  to  read  critically. 
The  work  of  the  term  shall  be  as  follows : 

1  Short  themes  of  various  types. 

2  Paragraphs  illustrative  of  elements  in  argumentation;  e.g.  an 
appeal  to  the  interests  of  an  audience,  the  clear  statement  of  a 
question,  various  methods  of  developing  proof,  summaries  of  proof, 
etc. 

3  At  least  one  argument  of  considerable  length,  developed 
through  formal  introduction  and  brief.  The  work  should  demand 
more  of  the  students  than  did  the  argumentation  of  the  second  year. 
The  topics  chosen  should  deal  with  such  questions  of  the  day  as  are 
well  within  the  grasp  of  students. 

4  A  review  of  the  principles  of  unity ;  coherence  and  emphasis  in 
sentences,  paragraphs  and  compositions. 


24  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Grammar.  The  study  of  grammar  continued  in  connection  with 
the  work  in  literature  and  composition,  with  special  attention  to  the 
simpler  idiomatic  and  elliptical  expressions  of  standard  English. 


FOURTH  YEAR 

SECOND    HALF 

Literature 

Required  for  study. 

Macaulay.     Life  of  Johnson,  or 
Carlyle.     Essay  on  Burns 

and 
Shakspere.     Macbeth 
Composition  and  rhetoric.     The  work  of  the  term  shall  be   as 
follows : 

i  Themes  of  various  types. 

2  A   composition  of  considerable  length.     The  student  should 
have  perfect  freedom  in  the  choice  of  literary  form  and  be  expected 
to  express  himself  correctly  and  forcibly  in  clear,  idiomatic  English. 
This  production  should  be  a  final  measure  of  his  ability  to  write. 
Grammar.     Continuation  of  the  work  of  the  previous  half  year. 


APPENDIX 

I     Uniform  college  entrance  requirements  in  English  for  the  years 

1909,  1910,  1911 

Note.  No  candidate  will  be  accepted  in  English  whose  work  is  notably 
defective  in  point  of  spelling,  punctuation,  idiom,  or  division  into 
paragraphs. 

(a)  Reading  and  practice.  A  certain  number  of  books  will  be 
recommended  for  reading,  10  of  which,  selected  as  prescribed  below, 
are  to  be  offered  for  examination.  The  form  of  examination  will 
usually  be  the  writing  of  a  paragraph  or  two  on  each  of  several 
topics,  to  be  chosen  by  the  candidate  from  a  considerable  number — 
perhaps  10  or  15 — set  before  him  in  the  examination  paper.  The 
treatment  of  these  topics  is  designed  to  test  the  candidate's  power 
of  clear  and  accurate  expression,  and  will  call  for  only  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  substance  of  the  books.  In  every  case  knowledge 
of  the  book  will  be  regarded  as  less  important  than  the  ability  to 
write  good  English.  In  place  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of  this  test,  the 
candidate  may  present  an  exercise  book,  properly  certified  to  by  his 


ENGLISH  25 

instructor,  containing  compositions  or  other  written  work  done  in 
connection  with  the  reading  of  the  books.  In  preparation  for  this 
part  of  the  requirement,  it  is  important  that  the  candidate  shall 
have  been  instructed  in  the  fundamental  principles  of  rhetoric. 

1909,  1910,  1911 

Group  I  (two  to  be  selected).  Shakspere's  As  you  Like  It,  Henry 
V,  Julius  Caesar,  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Twelfth  Night. 

Group  II  (one  to  be  selected).  Bacon's  Essays;  Bunyan's  The 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  part  I ;  The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers  in  the 
Spectator;    Franklin's  Autobiography. 

Group  III  (one  to  be  selected).  Chaucer's  Prologue;  Spenser's 
Faerie  Queene  (selections) ;  Pope's  The  Rape  of  the  Lock;  Goldsmith's 
The  Deserted  Village;  Palgrave's  Golden  Treasury  (first  series), 
books  II  and  III,  with  especial  attention  to  Dry  den,  Collins,  Gray, 
Cowper  and  Burns. 

Group  IV  (two  to  be  selected).  Goldsmith's  The  Vicar  of 
Wakefield;  Scott's  Ivanhoe;  Scott's  Quentin  Durward;  Hawthorne's 
The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables;  Thackeray's  Henry  Esmond;  Mrs 
Gaskell's  Cranford;  Dickens's  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities;  George  Eliot's 
Silas  Marner;  Blackmore's  Lorna  Doone. 

Group  V  (two  to  be  selected).  Irving's  Sketch  Book;  Lamb's 
Essays  of  Elia;  DeQuincey's  Joan  of  Arc  and  The  English  Mail  Coach; 
Carlyle's  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship;  Emerson's  Essays  (selected) ; 
Ruskin's  Sesame  and  Lilies. 

Group  VI  (two  to  be  selected).  Coleridge's  The  Ancient  Mariner; 
Scott's  The  Lady  of  the  Lake;  Byron's  Mazeppa  and  The  Prisoner  of 
Chillon;  Palgrave's  Golden  Treasury  (first  series),  book  IV,  with 
especial  attention  to  Wordsworth,  Keats,  and  Shelley;  Macaulay's 
Lays  of  Ancient  Rome;  Poe's  Poems;  Lowell's  The  Vision  of  Sir 
Launfal;  Arnold's  Sohrab  and  Rustum;  Longfellow's  The  Court- 
ship of  Miles  Standish;  Tennyson's  Gareth  and  Lynette,  Lancelot 
and  Elaine,  and  The  Passing  of  Arthur;  Browning's  Cavalier  Tunes, 
The  Lost  Leader,  How  they  Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent  to 
Aix,  Evelyn  Hope,  Home  Thoughts  from  Abroad,  Home  Thoughts 
from  the  Sea,  Incident  of  the  French  Camp,  The  Boy  and  the  Angel, 
One  Word  More,  Herv6  Riel,  Pheidippides. 

(b)  Study  and  practice.  This  part  of  the  examination  pre- 
supposes the  thorough  study  of  each  of  the  works  named  below. 
The  examination  will  be  upon  subject-matter,  form  and  structure. 

In  addition,  the  candidate  may  be  required  to  answer  questions 
involving  the  essentials  of  English  grammar,  and  questions  on  the 
leading  facts  in  those  periods  of  English  literary  history  to  which 
the  prescribed  works  belong. 


26  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

The  books  set  for  this  part  of  the  examination  will  be : 
1909,  1910,  191 1 :  Shakspere's  Macbeth;  Milton's  Lycidas, 
Conius,  Uallegro  and  77  penseroso;  Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation 
with  America,  or  Washington's  Farewell  Address  and  Webster's 
First  Bunker  Hill  Oration;  Macaulay's  Life  of  Johnson,  or  Carlyle's 
Essay  on  Burns. 

II  List  of  books  for  supplementary  reading  recommended  by  the 
National  Educational  Association 

FIRST    YEAR 

i  Whittier.     Snow  Bound 

2  Lamb.     Tales  of  Shakspere 

3  Hawthorne.     Wonder  Book 

4  Hawthorne.     Tanglewood  Tales 

5  Kipling.     Jungle  Book  No.  1 

6  Kipling.     Jungle  Book  No.  2 

7  Austen.     Betty  Alden 

8  Burroughs.     Sharp  Eyes 

9  Franklin.     Autobiography  of  Franklin 

10  Hughes.     Tom  Brown  at  Rugby 

1 1  Aldrich.     Story  of  a  Bad  Boy 

12  Dickens.     Nicholas  Nickleby 

13  Dana.     Two  Years  before  the  Mast 

14  Webster.     Bunker  Hill  Speeches 

15  Irving.     Sketch  Book 

16  Washington's  Rules  of  Conduct,  Farewell  Address,  and  Lincoln's 

Inaugural  and  Gettysburg  Speech 

17  Hale.     Man  Without  a  Country 

18  Dodge.     Hans  Brinker 

19  Scott.     Ivanhoe 

20  Scott.     Quentin  Durward 

2 1  Longfellow.     Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn 

22  Grinnell.     The  Story  of  the  Indian 

23  Jewett.     Tales  of  New  England 

24  Warner.     Being  a  Boy 

25  Shakspere.     Merchant  of  Venice 

26  Allen.     The  Choir  Invisible 

27  Irving-Fiske.     Life  of  Washington 

28  D'Amicis.     Cuore 

29  McDonald.     Back  of  the  North  Wind 

30  Macaulay's  or  Chesterfield's  Letters 


ENGLISH  2.7 

SECOND    YEAR 

i  Lowell.     Vision  of  Sir  Launfal 

2  Scott.     Lady  of  the  Lake 

3  Scott.     Marmion 

4  Browning,  Mrs.     Lyrics  and  Sonnets  ("Cry  of  the  Children") 

5  The  Lake  Poets,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Southey 

6  Shakspere.     Julius  Caesar 

7  Pope.     Translations  from  the  Iliad  (books  I,  VI,  XXII,  XXIV) 

8  Cooper.     Last  of  the  Mohicans 

9  Irving.     Tales  of  a  Traveler 

10  Fiske.     The  War  of  Independence 

11  Kaufmann.     Young  Folk's  Plutarch 

12  Plato.     Apology  of  Socrates 

13  Warner.     Back  Log  Studies 

14  Griffis.     Brave  Little  Holland 

15  Froude.     Julius  Caesar 

16  Miller,  Olive  T.     Little  People  of  Asia 

17  Hale.     Bulfmch's   Mythology 

18  Hawthorne.     Twice  Told  Tales 

19  Muloch.     John  Halifax 

20  Scott.     Kenilworth 

2 1  Dickens.     Tale  of  Two  Cities 

2  2  Brown,  John,  Dr.     Rab  and  His  Friends 

23  Preston  &  Dodge.     The  Private  Life  of  the  Romans 

24  Roosevelt  &  Lodge.     Hero  Tales  from  American  History 

25  Chester.     Girls  and  Women 

26  Rolfe.     Shakspere  the  Boy 

28  Stockton.     Rudder    Grange    Stories 

29  Eggleston.     The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster 

30  Roosevelt.     Ranch  Life  and  the  Hunting  Trail 

THIRD    YEAR 

i  Shakspere.     Richard  II 

2  Shakspere.     Twelfth  Night 

3  Shakspere.     Macbeth 

4  Irving.     Legends  of  the  Alhambra 

5  Eliot.     Silas  Marner 

6  Lowell  &  Arnold,  Matthew.     Critical  Essays 

7  Wendell  Phillips.     Lectures    and    Speeches 

8  Henty,  C.  A.     Wulf  the  Saxon 

9  Fiske.     Political  Ideas 

10  Henty.     The  Young  Carthaginian 


28  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

1 1  Kingsley.     The  Roman  and  the  Teuton 

12  Milton.     Minor  Poems 

13  Goldsmith.     Vicar  of  Wakefield 

14  Emerson.     Essay  on  Friendship 

15  Stevenson.     Kidnapped 

16  Hawthorne.     Our  Old  Home 

17  Craddock.     Prophet  of  Great  Smoky  Mounta;n 

18  Dickens.     Dombey  and  Son 

19  Winthrop.     John     Brent 

20  Blackmore.     Lorna  Doone 

21  Milton.     Paradise  Lost  (books  I,  II) 

23  Curtis.     Prue  and  I 

24  Thackeray.     The  Newcomes 

25  Holmes.     Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table 

26  Ebers.     Uarda 

2  7  Macaulay.     Lord  Clive 

28  Wallace.     Ben  Hur 

29  Dryden.     Palamon  and  Arcite 

30  Church.     Roman  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero 

FOURTH    YEAR 

1  Shakspere.     Hamlet 

2  Addison.     Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers  in  the  Spectator 

3  Fiske.     Critical  Period  of  American  History 

4  Bryce.     American  Commonwealth  (abridged) 

5  Carlyle.     Essay  on  Burns  (and  Poems) 

6  Mackenzie.     Nineteenth    Century 

7  Gaskell.     Life  of  Charlotte  Bronte 

8  Schurz.     Abraham  Lincoln 

9  Riis.     How  the  Other  Half  Lives 

10  Black.     Judith  Shakespeare 

11  Ebers.     Egyptian   Princess 

12  Fiske.     The  Destiny  of  Man 

13  Macaulay.     Warren  Hastings 

14  Thackeray.     Henry  Esmond 

15  Tennyson.     Princess 

16  Austen.     Pride  and  Prejudice 

17  Hawthorne.     Marble  Faun 

18  Dickens.     David  Copperfield 

20  Coleridge.     Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner 

21  Winter.     Shakspere's  England 

22  Ruskin.     Sesame    and    Lilies 


ENGLISH  29 

23  Spencer.     On  Style  (part  1) 

24  Burke.     Speech  on  Conciliation  with  America 

25  Emerson.     Conduct  of  Life 

26  Macaulay.     Milton  and  Addison 

27  Thoreau.     Walden 

28  Warner.     My  Summer  in  a  Garden 

29  Emerson.     Essay  on  Manners 

30  Eliot.     Romola 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

This  syllabus  has  been  prepared  for  such  students  as  desire  a  more 
exact  and  complete  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  English  grammar 
than  can  be  gained  from  the  prescribed  four  year  course  in  English. 
The  examination  will  be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  students  in 
the  third  or  fourth  year  of  the  high  school  and  will  be  based  upon 
the  following  outline  of  topics  as  treated  in  the  best  standard  text- 
books on  this  subject: 

1  Analysis  and  classification  of  sentences;  functions  of  word, 
phrase  and  clause  elements;  subdivision,  inflection,  and  syntax  of 
the  parts  of  speech. 

2  The  use  of  grammatical  analysis  for  the  purpose  of  elucidating 
obscure  or  complex  constructions.  Such  exercises  in  interpreta- 
tion may  be  given  incidentally  in  connection  with  the  reading  of 
masterpieces,  but  they  should  be  given  also  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  literary  material  selected  for  this  special  purpose. 

3  The  classification  of  the  common  errors  of  written  and  spoken 
language  and  their  correction  by  the  student  through  the  applica- 
tion of  the  rules  of  grammar. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 

This  outline  of  study  has  been  prepared  to  supplement  the 
regular  instruction  in  English  and  is  designed  for  the  fourth  year. 
It  includes  the  history  of  English  literature  from  its  beginnings  in 
Saxon  times  to  the  present  day,  the  history  of  American  literature, 
and  the  more  important  phases  of  the  development  of  English 
vocabulary  and  idiom.  In  the  study  of  the  history  of  literature, 
emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  prominent  movements  and  tend- 
encies. Such  movements  should  be  shown  to  be  related,  either  as 
cause  or  as  effect,  to  important  changes  in  national  conditions  and 
ideals.     Especial  attention  should  be  given  to  premonitory  indica- 


30  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

tions  of  new  tendencies  in  letters  or  in  life.  One  author  in  each 
period  should  be  selected  as  typical  of  some  tendency,  and  writers 
of  similar  characteristics  should  be  grouped  about  him.  Traits 
noted  in  his  works  should  be  noted  in  theirs,  as  well  as  in  the  work 
of  authors  preceding  or  following.  The  absence  of  certain  traits 
may  be  no  less  significant.  The  details  of  the  author's  life  should 
be  studied  only  in  so  far  as  they  make  clear  the  exact  nature  of  his 
accomplishment  and  the  personal  characteristics  and  external  con- 
ditions that  account  for  it. 

The  student  should  be  led  to  apply  what  he  learns  in  this  course 
to  the  books  that  he  has  previously  studied.  He  should  be  enabled 
to  place  them  in  true  historical  perspective  and  in  proper  relation- 
ship to  each  other  and  to  other  works  of  literature.  Additional 
reading  should  be  undertaken  both  to  widen  this  field  and  to  in- 
tensify impressions.  In  so  far  as  is  practicable,  the  student  should 
read  from  each  author,  not  merely  about  him.  He  should  rather 
be  helped  to  perceive  characteristics  for  himself  than  asked  to 
accept  them  from  textbook  or  teacher. 

Some  suitable  textbook  in  the  history  of  English  literature 
should  be  in  use,  supplemented  by  a  small  library  including  the 
better  known  works  of  general  literature,  selected  prose  and  verse, 
works  of  criticism  and  of  social  history,  and  larger  works  upon  the 
history  of  literature,  English,  American,  and  foreign,  and  upon  the 
history  of  the  English  language. 

This  course  should  be  closely  articulated  with  that  carried  out  in 
accordance  with  the  general  suggestions  made  in  the  regular  syllabus. 
To  the  extent  that  such  offer  suitable  material,  the  books  for  sup- 
plementary reading  should  be  chosen  from  those  given  in  the 
uniform  college  entrance  requirements  [see  p.  2 6 J. 


GROUP  i  {continued) 
LATIN  AND  GREEK 

First  year  Latin  Translation  of  prose  at  sight 

Latin  grammar  Translation  of  poetry  at  sight 

Elementary  Latin  composition  First  year  Greek 

Caesar  Greek  grammar 

The  first  four  books  of  the  Gallic  Elementary  Greek  composition 

#War  Xenophon 

Cicero  The  first  four  books  of  the  Anabasis 

The  four  Catilinian  orations,  the  Homer's  Iliad 

Archias  and  the  Manilian  Law  The  firgt  three  books 
Virgil 

The    first    six   books     of    the 
Aeneid 


Greek  composition 
Translation  of  prose  at  sight 


Latin  composition  Translation  of  Homer  at  sight 

The  committee  representing  the  Associated  Academic  Principals 
decided  to  modify  their  original  report  by  recommending  that  the 
examinations  in  Latin  and  Greek  given  by  the  Department  be 
expressed  in  the  terms  generally  employed  by  the  colleges  to  indi- 
cate their  requirements  for  admission.  This  amended  report  is 
now  in  substantial  accord  with  the  definitions  of  requirements 
recommended  by  the  American  Philological  Association. 

General  suggestions.  In  the  teaching  of  Latin  and  Greek  three 
lines  of  work  must  be  carried  forward  simultaneously:  (i)  inflec- 
tion and  derivation,  (2)  syntax,  (3)  interpretation  and  translation. 
During  the  first  year  the  first  of  these  must  receive  the  most  atten- 
tion. At  no  time,  however,  should  the  three  be  separated.  The 
final  translation  into  English  is  the  capstone  of  a  building  whose 
foundations  and  walls  depend  on  correct  knowledge  of  the  first 
two.  In  the  following  outlines  the  chief  emphasis  has  been  put 
on  matters  of  grammar  during  the  first  year's  work.  The  acquisi- 
tion of  an  adequate  vocabulary,  with  ability  to  recognize  words 
as  readily  by  sound  as  by  sight,  and  the  attainment  of  power  to 
follow  the  sense  in  the  words  and  order  of  the  original,  are  also  of 
great  importance  and  should  not  be  deferred.  If  this  work  is  well 
and  faithfully  done,  the  victory  is  gained.  The  student  may  then 
give  more  attention  to  the  literary  side  of  his  reading  and  to  the 
various  questions  connected  with  the  subject-matter  of  the  authors 
studied. 

To  acquire  power  to  understand  and  ability  to  translate  a  foreign 
language  it  is  essential  that  the  student  should  have  constant 


32  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

practice  in  elementary  composition  and  in  translations  at  sight. 
Oral  and  written  "composition  fixes  the  student's  vocabulary  in 
mind,  serves  as  a  constant  review  of  the  forms  and  quickens  his 
sensitiveness  to  the  peculiar  significance  of  the  order  of  words  in 
the  prose  sentence  and  to  the  difference  of  meaning  between  simi- 
lar words  and  constructions.  Exercises  in  the  reading  of  unpre- 
pared passages  enable  the  teacher  to  discern  and  to  meet  the 
student's  difficulties  in  the  interpretation  of  a  new  sentence,  and 
give  the  student  readiness  in  translation  and  a  feeling  of  mastery 
over  the  language.  Rapid  reading,  as  well  as  an  exact  interpreta- 
tion, is  necessary  to  true  scholarship." 

LATIN 

First  year.  The  work  of  this  year  should  be  intensive,  and 
should  furnish  by  constant  drill  a  sound  foundation  for  the  work 
of  later  years.  It  should  include  a  thoroughly  mastered  vocabu- 
lary of  at  least  600  or  700  common  Latin  words.  Of  these  the 
force  of  the  most  common  prefixes,  suffixes  and  roots  should  be 
known,  the  quantity  of  the  penultimate  and  final  syllables  learned, 
and  all  common  paradigms  and  forms  thoroughly  committed  to 
memory  and  made  easily  usable  by  constant  drill  and  application. 
Special  attention  should  be  given  during  the  first  year  to  the  forma- 
tion of  correct  habits  of  translation,  and  no  result  should  be  re- 
garded as  satisfactory  in  this  direction  till  the  Latin  can  be  ren- 
dered naturally  and  fluently  into  exact  and  idiomatic  English. 
This  being  very  largely  a  matter  of  practice,  frequent  and  rapid 
reviews  can  not  be  too  urgently  recommended.  The  previous 
acquaintance  of  the  student  with  the  principles  of  English  gram- 
mar should  be  reenforced  by  constant  reference  to  corresponding 
constructions.  Every  Latin  word  that  has  a  derivative  in  the 
English  should  furnish  a  suggestion  for  interesting  examination 
and  discussion. 

The  regular,  and  more  common  irregular  forms  of  noun  and 
adjective  declensions,  conjugations  of  verbs,  and  comparison  of 
adjectives  and  adverbs,  should  be  carefully  learned,  together  with 
the  ordinary  applications  of  the  common  rules  of  syntax.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  call  attention  to  details.  The  year  requires  a 
systematic  and  complete  study  of  the  fundamental  and  simple 
applications  of  all  the  ordinary  rules  of  Latin  syntax.  No  time 
should  be  spent  on  such  applications  of  syntax  as  are  not  used  in 
the  Latin  that  is  to  be  read  during  the  second  year. 


LATIN  33 

Regular  exercises  in  Latin  composition  should  be  used  for  the 
purpose  of  more  clearly  fixing  the  points  suggested  above.  In 
these  exercises  the  sentences  should  be  short  and  free  from  all 
unnecessary  difficulties  and  complexities.  To  develop  the  student's 
power  to  apply  his  knowledge  of  forms  and  vocabulary  he  should 
be  encouraged  from  the  first  to  translate  simple  sentences  at  sight 
and  later  in  the  year,  easy  selections  of  connected  discourse. 

The  work  of  this  year  is  far  more  important  than  that  of  any 
later  year,  and  on  its  thoroughness  depends  the  future  success  of 
the  student.  It  is  the  year  for  acquiring  a  working  vocabulary,  a 
complete  mastery  of  ordinary  forms  and  the  simpler  principles  of 
Latin  syntax. 

Second  year:  Caesar's  Gallic  War.  The  second  year  is  a  very 
critical  period  in  the  study  of  Latin,  inasmuch  as  it  is  in  this  year 
that  the  student  will  show  whether  or  not  he  has  acquired  the  power 
during  the  first  year  to  enable  him  to  take  up  the  reading  of  a  Latin 
author.  All  the  first  year's  work,  in  the  matter  of  forms  and 
applications  of  rules  of  syntax,  should  be  carefully  reviewed,  and 
the  subject-matter  amplified  as  the  demands  of  the  author  shall 
show  the  need.  The  general  principles  of  indirect  discourse  should 
be  sufficiently  mastered  to  warrant  the  intelligent  reading  of  the 
author  prescribed  for  the  year.  It  is  not  expected  that  the  more 
complicated  constructions  under  this  head  should  be  mastered,  as 
this  would  involve  too 'great  difficulties  for  the  time  allowed.  A 
complete  review  of  the  subject  should  be  postponed  to  the  year 
following.  A  fractional  part  of  each  recitation  period  should  be 
given  to  oral  and  written  exercises  wherein  sentences  of  gradually 
increasing  length  and  complexity  shall  be  translated  from  English 
into  Latin. 

Students  should  have  constant  practice  in  translating  at  sight 
easy  portions  of  advanced  lessons,  and  other  selections  from 
the  author  not  involving  too  great  difficulties,  the  teacher  supply- 
ing the  meaning  of  unusual  words. 

Only  so  much  history  and  geography  should  be  taught  as  will 
make  an  intelligent  setting  for  the  matter  read.  At  the  completion 
of  this  year's  work  the  pupils  will  be  expected  to  show  the  examina- 
tion a  thorough  knowledge  of  forms,  regular  and  irregular,  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  idioms  as  far  as  used  in  the  author  read,  a  power  to  trans- 
late at  sight  simple  passages  involving  the  usual  vocabulary  and 
forms,  and  the  ability  also  %o  translate  simple  English  sentences 
into  good  Latin  illustrating  any  of  the  forms  or  rules  required  for 
use  in  this  year.     The  examination  in  Caesar  and  in  elementary 


34  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Latin  composition  will  be  confined  to  the  first  four  books  of  the 
Gallic  War. 

Third  year:  Cicero's  Orations.  The  third  year  of  Latin  should 
embrace  a  careful  and  thorough  review  of  the  work  of  previous 
years,  and  a  completion  of  the  etymologic  and  syntactic  parts  of 
the  Latin  grammar,  as  applied  to  simple  prose  constructions. 
Facility  in  translation  must  be  attained,  a  fair  working  vocabulary 
acquired,  and  also  a  general  historical  and  geographical  knowledge 
of  the  times,  places  and  peoples  referred  to  in  the  writings  of  the 
author,  together  with  the  ability  to  write  simple  and  connected 
Latin  prose  with  a  fair  degree  of  ease  and  accuracy.  The  writing 
of  Latin  should  be  carried  on  throughout  the  year  concurrently 
with  the  study  of  the  text.  The  power  to  read  at  sight  must  be 
constantly  tested,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  too  difficult 
Latin  in  selecting  passages  for  this  purpose. 

It  should  be  clearly  borne  in  mind  that  the  translation  at  sight 
of  Latin  selections  must  supplement  and  not  take  the  place  of  the 
exact  rendering  of  carefully  prepared  translations  to  which  the 
larger  energy  and  time  of  the  student  should  be  given. 

The  subject-matter  for  examination  in  the  third  year  will  be 
Cicero's  Catilinian  Orations,  together  with  the  Manilian  Law  and 
the  Poet  Archias. 

At  the  end  of  this  year  the  student  should  also  be  fully  prepared 
to  take  the  examination  in  Latin  grammar.  This  will  involve  the 
forms  and  constructions  used  in  the  texts  thus  far  studied. 

Fourth  year:  Virgil's  Aeneid.  The  examination  for  the  fourth 
year  will  be  on  the  first  six  books  of  Virgil's  Aeneid.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  translation,  enough  attention  should  be  given  to 
prosody  to  enable  the  pupil  clearly  to  understand  the  structure  and 
quantities  of  the  dactylic  hexameter.  Such  knowledge  of  myth- 
ology, geography,  general  history  and  philosophy  as  is  needed  to 
give  a  fair  comprehension  of  the  poem  read  will  be  required. 

Exercises  in  Latin  composition  which  should  be  continued 
throughout  the  year,  should  be  based  entirely  on  Cicero's  orations. 
This  work  is  to  be  done  more  for  the  purpose  of  reviewing  the  con- 
structions of  Latin  prose  than  to  assist  in  the  reading  of  Virgil. 

During  the  year  choice  expressions  and  thoughts  of  the  author 
should  be  memorized  to  the  extent  of  at  least  50  lines,  with  careful 
attention  to  the  meter  of  the  text.  At  the  end  of  the  year  students 
should  be  able  to  translate  at  sight  with  considerable  freedom  any 
selection  of  the  author  in  which  involved  constructions  or  obscure 
references  do  not  appear. 


GREEK  35 

GREEK 

In  accordance  with  the  general  suggestions  at  the  beginning  of 
this  syllabus,  the  attention  of  the  pupil  beginning  Greek  should  be 
directed  from  the  outset  to  the  roots  of  words,  to  the  more  common 
prefixes  and  suffixes  and  to  the  endings  of  the  inflections.  For 
example,  <f>ikos,  Ao'yos  and  xp°vos>  three  simple  nouns  of  the 
second  declension,  afford  ample  opportunity  for  showing  English 
derivation  of  Greek  words.  The  forms  of  Greek  proper  names, 
when  written  in  the  Roman  alphabet,  and  their  proper  English 
pronunciation,  should  receive  careful  attention.  Neatness  in 
writing  Greek  words,  correct  forms  of  the  letters,  and  exactness  in 
the  placing  of  accents,  are  to  be  enforced.  Good  habits  may  be 
formed  quite  as  easily  as  bad  ones;  no  slovenly  or  vague  work 
should  be  allowed  at  any  time ;  the  value  of  a  right  beginning  can 
not  be  overestimated. 

First  year.  The  examination  on  first  year  Greek  will  be  ex- 
pected to  test  a  thorough  knowledge  of  forms  in  common  use,  and 
of  the  topics  of  grammar  indicated  in  the  following  paragraphs: 

The  sounds  of  the  language  and  their  graphic  representation,  the 
pronunciation  of  the  vowels,  particularly  of  o  and  v  and  of  the 
diphthongs  a'  and  ev,  the  classification  of  sounds,  the  real  charac- 
ter of  the  aspirates  and  of  the  double  consonants,  the  rules  of 
euphony  and  the  principles  of  accentuation  must  be  thoroughly 
mastered.  The  student  should  know  the  inflection  of  all  the  main 
classes  of  nouns,  adjectives  and  participles,  but  time  should  not  be 
spent  on  rare  forms.  Further,  the  scope  of  the  examination  in- 
cludes the  comparison  of  adjectives  and  the  formation  of  adverbs. 
The  reflexive  and  correlative  forms  of  the  pronoun  should  receive 
careful  attention  in  regard  both  to  form  and  use.  The  student 
must  be  able  to  form  from  the  verb  stem  or  from  any  inflected  form 
given  him  the  principal  tense  stem,  and  to  inflect  the  tenses  through- 
out the  various  modes.  The  present,  the  aorist  and  the  future  in  all 
voices,  and  the  perfect  in  the  middle  and  the  passive,  are  the  most 
important  forms.  The  analysis  of  Greek  words  should  be  made  a 
constant  exercise.  By  so  doing  much  time  is  saved  which  would 
otherwise  be  spent  in  hunting  up  words  of  like  origin  in  the  diction- 
aries. The  grouping  of  words  with  a  common  base  or  a  common 
suffix  should  be  practised,  and  yet  work  of  this  character  should  be 
introduced  gradually  as  the  various  categories  are  reached,  and 
should  not  be  crowded  into  one  or  more  lessons  by  itself.  The 
student  should  know  the  formal  use  of  the  cases,  of  the  modes  in 


2,6  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

simple  sentences,  of  conditions,  and  of  relative  clauses  and  con- 
ditions in  indirect  discourse.  Of  importance  further  on  are  the 
uses  of  pronouns,  particularly  of  the  relative  pronouns,  also  the  use 
of  the  main  conjunctions  $va,  /xrj,  wore,  /xeV,  8e,  ci  and  idv,  and  of  the 
modal  adverb  av.  The  student  will  be  expected  to  translate 
into  English  an  easy  selection,  and  to  form  short  sentences  in  Greek. 
The  passages  for  translation  may  involve  a  knowledge  of  the  vari- 
ous subjects  enumerated  in  the  preceding  paragraphs. 

Second  year:  Xenophon's  Anabasis.  Four  books  of  Xenophon's 
Anabasis  are  required  for  this  examination.  The  candidate  will  be 
expected  to  translate  any  passages  selected  into  good  English  which 
shall  at  the  same  time  indicate  as  closely  as  possible  the  construc- 
tion of  the  original.  He  should  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
regular  inflections,  and  be  able  to  state  clearly  and  to  apply  the 
most  important  rules  of  syntax.  Thorough  training  in  the  laws  of 
indirect  discourse  is  strongly  advised,  and,  as  a  preliminary  to  this 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  ordinary  uses  of  the  modes  and  their 
time  relation  are  fully  understood.  Constant  attention  to  the  Eng- 
lish derivatives  is  also  recommended  as  adding  to  the  interest  of  the 
study  of  Greek.  The  student  should  be  able  to  give  the  meaning 
of  each  constituent  of  compound  words  and  the  effect  of  each  on  the 
significance  of  the  compound.  The  examination  will  include  ques- 
tions on  the  subject-matter  of  the  text,  involving  a  general  knowl- 
edge of  the  geography  and  history  of  the  countries  traversed  by 
the  expedition.  The  student  will  also  be  expected  to  have  learned, 
through  supplementary  reading,  histories  or  other  works,  the  main 
facts  of  the  narrative  as  a  whole.  Preparation  for  examination  in 
Greek  prose  composition  can  be  made  only  by  careful,  systematic 
drill  in  the  translation  of  English  into  Greek.  This  should  be  car- 
ried on  concurrently  with  the  reading  of  the  Anabasis.  Principles 
of  syntax  illustrated  in  the  author  read  should  be  applied  in  com- 
position based  on  the  text.  The  examination  in  elementary  com- 
position will  be  based  on  the  vocabulary  found  in  the  first  and 
second  books  of  the  Anabasis  and  rare  words,  if  called  for,  will  be 
given  in  the  examination  paper.  All  Greek  words  are  to  be  dis- 
tinctly written  and  correctly  accented. 

Third  year:  Homers  Iliad.  The  examination  will  be  on  the  first 
three  books  of  Homer's  Iliad,  excepting  the  catalogue  of  the  ships 
in  the  second  book.  Smoothness  in  translation  without  sacrifice 
of  accuracy,  and  familiarity  with  Homeric  syntax,  will  be  expected. 
The  student  should  have  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  rules 
of  prosody  and  their  exceptions,  and  the  laws  of  hexameter  verse. 


GREEK  37 

The  scansion  of  exceptional  as  well  as  regular  verses  from  the  text 
will  be  required.  In  oral  practice  the  attention  of  the  student 
should  be  carefully  directed  to  the  real  meaning  of  quantity  as  made 
manifest  by  the  musical  symbols  now  found  in  all  grammars. 
Homer's  verses  should  not  be  baldly  anglicized;  and  if  the  ear  is 
first  trained,  the  true  rhythm  is  easily  caught.  A  knowledge  of 
epic  forms  sufficient  to  give  certainty  in  recognizing  the  main  types 
will  be  necessary,  but  the  work  in  Homer  is  not  expected  to  be 
primarily  grammatical.  It  is  of  very  great  importance  that  there 
should  be  at  least  a  general  acquaintance  with  the  whole  story  of 
the  Iliad,  through  supplementary  reading,  sight  reading  or  lec- 
tures, and  special  familiarity  with  those  scenes  and  passages  which 
are  recognized  everywhere  as  masterpieces  of  the  world's  literature. 
Prose  composition  should  be  continued  throughout  this  year  to 
the  extent  of  one  period  a  week.  The  aim  of  the  work  in  general 
should  be  the  review  of  Attic  forms  and  constructions  and  the  per- 
fecting of  the  student's  ability  to  articulate  simple  clauses  in  con- 
nected discourse.  The  examination  will  consist  of  the  translation 
into  Greek  of  continuous  prose,  employing  the  vocabulary  and 
idioms  of  the  first  four  books  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis. 


GROUP  i   (concluded) 
MODERN  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES 
German         French         Spanish 

Three  grades  of  instruction  in  the  modern  foreign  languages, 
elementary,  intermediate  and  advanced,  have  been  adopted  in 
accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  the  Modern  Foreign 
Language  Association  of  America,  the  three  grades  corresponding 
normally  to  courses  of  two,  three  and  four  years  respectively. 
The  examination  questions  issued  by  the  State  Education  Depart- 
ment will  accord  with  this  classification  with  the  single  exception 
that  first  year  test  papers  may  be  provided  for  students  intending 
to  leave  school  or  to  discontinue  the  subject  at  the  end  of  one 
year's  work. 

The  two  suggestive  paragraphs  preceding  the  lists  of  texts  and 
relating  to  the  aims  of  the  instruction  and  the  work  to  be  done, 
have  been  quoted  from  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve 
[D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  Boston,  16c].  This  report  discusses  at  length 
the  value  of  the  modern  foreign  languages  in  secondary  education, 
the  qualifications  and  training  of  teachers  and  the  several  methods 
of  instruction,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher  of 
modern  languages. 

The  lists  of  suggested  texts  in  German  and  French  are  in  exact 
conformity  with  the  recommendations  of  the  committee  on  modern 
languages  appointed  by  the  Associated  Academic  Principals  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  are  inclusive  of  the  texts  proposed  by  the 
committee  of  twelve.  The  differences  between  the  two  lists  are 
indicated  as  follows: 

1  Not  found  in  the  list  of  texts  recommended  by  the  committee 

of  twelve. 

2  Placed  in  the  intermediate  list  by  the  committee  of  twelve. 
8  Placed  in  the  elementary  list  by  the  committee  of  twelve. 

4  Placed  in  the  advanced  list  by  the  committee  of  twelve. 

GERMAN 

i  Elementary  requirement 

Aim  of  the  instruction 
At  the  end  of  the  elementary  course  in  German  the  pupil  should 
be  able  to  read  at  sight,  and  to  translate,  if  called  upon,  by  way  of 
proving  his  ability  to  read,  a  passage  of  very  easy  dialogue  or  nar- 
rative prose,  help  being  given  upon  unusual  words  and  construc- 

38 


GERMAN  39 

tions;  to  put  into  German  short  English  sentences  taken  from  the 
language  of  everyday  life  or  based  upon  the  text  given  for  transla- 
tion, and  to  answer  questions  upon  the  rudiments  of  grammar,  as 
defined  below. 

Work  to  be  done 

During  the  first  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (i)  careful  drill 
upon  pronunciation;  (2)  the  memorizing  and  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  easy  colloquial  sentences;  (3)  drill  upon  the  rudiments  of 
grammar,  that  is,  upon  the  inflection  of  the  articles,  of  such  nouns 
as  belong  to  the  language  of  everyday  life,  of  adjectives,  pronouns, 
weak  verbs,  and  the  more  usual  strong  verbs;  also  upon  the  use  of 
the  more  common  prepositions,  the  simpler  uses  of  the  modal 
auxiliaries,  and  the  elementary  rules  of  syntax  and  word  order; 
(4)  abundant  easy  exercises  designed  not  only  to  fix  in  mind  the 
forms  and  principles  of  grammar,  but  also  to  cultivate  readiness  in 
the  reproduction  of  natural  forms  of  expression;  (5)  the  reading 
of  from  75  to  100  pages  of  graduated  texts  from  a  reader,  with 
constant  practice  in  translating  into  German  easy  variations  upon 
sentences  selected  from  the  reading  lesson  (the  teacher  giving  the 
English),  and  in  the  reproduction  from  memory  of  sentences  pre- 
viously read. 

During  the  second  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (1)  the  read- 
ing of  from  150  to  200  pages  of  literature  in  the  form  of  easy  stories 
and  plays;  (2)  accompanying  practice,  as  before,  in  the  transla- 
tion into  German  of  easy  variations  upon  the  matter  read,  and  also 
in  the  offhand  reproduction,  sometimes  orally  and  sometimes  in 
writing,  of  the  substance  of  short  and  easy  selected  passages ; 
(3)  continued  drill  upon  the  rudiments  of  the  grammar,  directed 
to  the  ends  of  enabling  the  pupil,  first,  to  use  his  knowledge  with 
facility  in  the  formation  of  sentences,  and,  secondly,  to  state  his 
knowledge  correctly  in  the  technical  language  of  grammar. 

Stories  suitable  for  the  elementary  course  can  be  selected  from 
the  following  list: 

Andersen.     Bilderbuch  ohne  Bilder 

Arnold.     Ein  Regentag  auf  dem  Lande,1      Fritz  auf  Ferien 

Baumbach1.     Im  Zwielicht,  Waldnovellen 

Baumbach  &  Wildenbruch1.     Es  War  Einmal 

Benedix.  Der  Prozess,  Der  Weiberfeind,  Eigensinn,1  Giinstige 
Vorzeichen 

Ebner-Eschenbach1.     Krambambuli 

Eichendorff1.     Aus  dem  Leben  eines  Taugenichts 


a  For  explanation  of  superior  figures  see  p.  38. 


40  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Elz.     Er  ist  nicht  eifersuchtig 

Gerstacker.     Germelshausen,   Irrfahrten*3 

Grimm1.     Kinder-und  Hausmarchen 

Heyse.     Anfangtind  Ende,  Das  Madchen  von  Treppi,  L'Arrabbiata 

Hillern.     Hoher  als  die  Kirche 

Leander.     Kleine  Geschichten,  Traumereien 

Meissner1.     Aus  meiner  Welt 

Meyer1.     Das   Amulett 

Riehl1.     Die  vierzehn  Nothelfer 

Schanz1.     Der  Assistent 

Seidel1.     Der  Lindenbaum,  Die  Monate,  Herr  Omnia 

Stifter1.     Das  Haidedorf 

Stokl.     Unter  dem  Christbaum 

Storm.     Geschichten  aus  der  Tonne 

Wichert.     An  der  Majorsecke 

Wildenbruch.     Das  edle  Blut2 

Zschokke.     Der  zerbrochene  Krug 

2  Intermediate  requirement 

Aim  of  the  instruction 
At  the  end  of  the  intermediate  course  the  pupil  should  be  able 
to  read  at  sight  German  prose  of  ordinary  difficulty,  whether  recent 
or  classical;  to  put  into  German  a  connected  passage  of  simple 
English,  paraphrased  from  a  given  text  in  German ;  to  answer  any 
grammatical  questions  relating  to  usual  forms  and  essential  prin- 
ciples of  the  language,  including  syntax  and  word  formation,  and 
to  translate  and  explain  (so  far  as  explanation  may  be  necessary) 
a  passage  of  classical  literature  taken  from  some  text  previously 
studied. 

Work  to  be  done 

The  work  should  comprise,  in  addition  to  the  elementary  course, 
the  reading  of  about  400  pages  of  moderately  difficult  prose  and 
poetry,  with  constant  practice  in  giving,  sometimes  orally  and 
sometimes  in  writing,  paraphrases,  abstracts,  or  reproductions  from 
memory  of  selected  portions  of  the  matter  read;  also  grammatical 
drill  upon  the  less  usual  strong  verbs,  the  use  of  articles,  cases, 
auxiliaries  of  all  kinds,  tenses  and  modes  (with  special  reference 
to  the  infinitive  and  subjunctive), and  likewise  upon  word  order 
and  word  formation. 

The  intermediate  course  is  supposed  to  be  the  elementary  course, 
plus  one  year's  work  at  the  rate  of  not  less  than  four  recitations 
a  week.  Suitable  reading  matter  for  the  third  year  can  be  selected 
from  such  works  as  the  following: 

a  For  explanation  of  superior  figures  see  p.  38. 


GERMAN  41 

Baumbach.     Der  Schwiegersohn,3  Die  Norma3 

Chamisso  al.     Peter  Schlemihl 

Ebner-Eschenbach.     Die  Freiherren  von  Gemperlein 

Fouque.     Undine 

Freytag.     Die  Journalisten 

Goethe.     Hermann  und  Dorothea 

Groller1.     Inkognito 

Hauff1.     Das  kalte  Herz,  Die  Karawane 

Heine.     Gedichte 

Heyse.     Kolberg 

Hoffmann.     Historisehe  Erzahlungen 

Jensen.     Die  braune  Erica3 

Lessing.     Minna  von  Bamhelm 

Meyer.     Gustav  Adolfs  Page 

Riehl.  Burg  Neideck,  Das  Spielmannskind.  Der  Fluch  der 
Schonheit,  Der  stumme  Ratsherr 

Rosegger.     Waldheimat 

Schiller.  Der  Neffe  als  Onkel,  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,  Wilhelm 
Tell 

Uhland.     Gedichte 

Wildenbnich1.     Der  Letzte 

3  Advanced  requirement 

At  the  end  of  the  advanced  course  the  student  should  be  able  to 
read,  after  brief  inspection,  any  German  literature  of  the  last  150 
years  that  is  free  from  any  unusual  textual  dil  ; ;   to  put  into 

German  a  passage  of  simple  English  prose;   to  answer  in  German 

questions  relating  to  the  lives  and  works  of  great  writers  studied, 
and  to  write  in  German  a  short,  independent  theme  upon  some 
assigned  topic. 

Work  to  be  done 

The  work  of  the  advanced  course  (last  year)  should  comprise 
the  reading  of  about  500  pages  of  good  literature  in  prose  and 
poetry,  reference  readings  upon  the  lives  and  works  of  the  great 
writers  studied,  the  writing  in  German  of  numerous  short  themes 
upon  assigned  subjects,  independent  translation  of  English  into 
German.     Suitable  reading  matter  for  the  last  year  will  be: 

Freytag.  Bilder  aus  der  deutschen  Yergangenheit3,  such  as  Aus 
dem  Staat  Friedrichs  des  Grossen,  Aus  den  Kreuzzugen,  Karl  der 
Grosse;  Soil  und  Haben 

Fulda.     Der  Talisman 

a  For  explanation  of  superior  figxires  see  p.  38. 


42  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Goethe.  Balladen  (selections),  Egmont,  Goetz  von  Berlichingen, 
Sesenheim 

Grillparzer.     Der  Traum,  ein  Leben 

Hauff.     Lichenstein 

Heine.     Balladen  (selections),  Reisebilder2a    (selections) 

Kleist.     Prinz  von  Homburg 

Korner.     Zriny 

Lessing.     Emilia  Galotti,  Nathan  der  Weise1 

Moser.     Der  Bibliothekar2 

Ranke1.     Kaiserwahl  Karls  V 

Scheffel.     Der  Trompeter  von  Sakkingen2,  Ekkehard 

Schiller.  Balladen  (selections)2,  Das  Lied  von  der  Glocke2, 
Gustav  Adolf  in  Deutschland1,  Maria  Stuart,  Wallenstein 

Sudermann.     Johannes 

Sybel1.     Die  Erhebung  Europas 

Wagner1.     Die  Meistersinger 

Wilbrandt1.     Der  Meister  von  Palmyra 

Besides  these  texts  there  are  excellent  books  like  the  following 
representing  the  so  called  "Realien"  that  offer  very  profitable 
reading: 

Stern1.  Geschichten  vom  Rhein  (2d  year),  Geschichten  von 
deutschen  Stadten  (3d  year) 

Prehn1.     Journalistic  German  (3d  year) 

Lodeman1.     Germany  and  the  Germans  (3d  year) 

Kron1.     German  Daily  Life  (2d  year) 

There  may  be  others  of  this  class,  but  these  are  the  only  ones 
that  have  come  to  our  notice. 

FRENCH 

1  Elementary  requirement 

Aim  of  the  instruction 

At  the  end  of  the  elementary  course  the  pupil  should  be  able  to 
pronounce  French  accurately,  to  read  at  sight  easy  French  prose, 
to  put  into  French  simple  English  sentences  taken  from  the  language 
of  everyday  life,  or  based  upon  a  portion  of  the  French  text  read, 
and  to  answer  questions  on  the  rudiments  of  the  grammar  as 
defined  below. 

Work  to  be  done 

During  the  first  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (1)  careful  drill 
in  pronunciation;  (2)  the  rudiments  of  grammar,  including  the 
inflection  of  the  regular  and  the  more  common  irregular  verbs, 

a  For  explanation  of  superior  figures  see  p.  38. 


FRENCH  43 

the  plural  of  nouns,  the  inflection  of  adjectives,  participles,  and 
pronouns;  the  use  of  personal  pronouns,  common  adverbs,  prepo- 
sitions, and  conjunctions;  the  order  of  words  in  the  sentence,  and 
the  elementary  rules  of  syntax;  (3)  abundant  easy  exercises, 
designed  not  only  to  fix  in  the  memory  the  forms  and  principles  of 
grammar,  but  also  to  cultivate  readiness  in  the  reproduction  of 
natural  forms  of  expression;  (4)  the  reading  of  from  100  to  175 
duodecimo  pages  of  graduated  texts,  with  constant  practice  in 
translating  into  French  easy  variations  of  the  sentences  read  (the 
teacher  giving  the  English),  and  in  reproducing  from  memory 
sentences  previously  read;    (5)  writing  French  from  dictation. 

During  the  second  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (1)  the  read- 
ing of  from  250  to  400  pages  of  easy  modern  prose  in  the  form  of 
stories,  plays,  or  historical  or  biographical  sketches;  (2)  constant 
practice,  as  in  the  previous  year,  in  translating  into  French  easy 
variations  upon  the  texts  read;  (3)  frequent  abstracts,  sometimes 
oral  and  sometimes  written,  of  portions  of  the  text  already  read; 
-(4)  writing  French  from  dictation;  (5)  continued  drill  upon  the 
rudiments  of  grammar,  with  constant  application  in  the  construc- 
tion of  sentences;  (6)  mastery  of  the  forms  and  use  of  pronoun, 
pronominal  adjectives,  of  all  but  the  rare  irregular  verb  forms, 
and  of  the  simpler  uses  of  the  conditional  and  subjunctive. 

Suitable  texts  for  the  second  year  are: 

About.     Short  stories*1 

Bruno.     Le  tour  de  la  France  \ 

Chateaubriand1.     Les  aventures  du  dernier  Abenc£rage 

Daudet.     His  easier  short  stories 

Dmmas1.     Excursions  sur  les  bords  du  Rhin 

Erckmann.     Chatrian's  stories 

Foa.     Contes  Biographiques,  Le  petit  Robinson  de  Paris 

Foncin.     Le  pays  de  France 

Halevy1.     L'Abbe'  Constantin 

La  B6dolli£rre.     La  mere  Michel  et  son  chat 

Labiche  &  Martin.  La  Poudre  aux  yeux,  Le  voyage  de  M.  Per- 
richon 

Legouve"  &  Labiche.     La  cigale  chez  les  fourmis 

Mairet.  La  clef  d'or1,  L'Enfant  de  la  lune1,  La  tache  du  petit 
Pierre 

Meilhac  &  Halevy1.     L'ete"  de  la  St  Martin 

Malot.     Sans  famine 

M£rim£e.     Colomba 

a  For  explanation  of  superior  figures  see  p.  38. 


44  NEW   YORK   STATE  EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Nodier1.     Le  chien  de  Brisquet 
Sand1.     La  mare  au  diable 
Schultz1.     La  Neuvaine  de  Colette 
Verne.     Selected  stories 

2  Intermediate  requirement 

Aim  of  the  instruction 
At  the  end  of  the  intermediate  course  the  pupil  should  be  able  to 
read  at  sight  ordinary  French  prose  or  simple  poetry,  to  translate 
into  French  a  connected  passage  of  English  based  on  the  text  read, 
and  to  answer  questions  involving  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of 
syntax  than  is  expected  in  the  elementary  course. 

Work  to  be  done 

This  should  comprise  the  reading  of  from  400  to  600  pages  of 
French  of  ordinary  difficulty,  a  portion  to  be  in  the  dramatic  form; 
constant  practice  in  giving  French  paraphrases,  abstracts  or  repro- 
ductions from  memory  of  selected  portions  of  the  matter  read ;  the 
study  of  a  grammar  of  moderate  completeness ;  writing  from  dicta- 
tion. 

Suitable  texts  are: 

About.     La  mere  de  la  marquise ia  ,  Le  roi  des  montagnes3 

Augier  &  Sandeau.     Le  gendre  de  M.  Poirier 

Beranger.     Selected  poems 

Copp£e.     Selected  poems 

Daudet.     La  Belle-Niveraaise,  Tartarin  de  Tarascon1 

Dumas4.     La  tulipe  noire,  Les  trois  mousquetaires,  Monte  Cristo 

Hugo.     Hernani,  La  chute 

Labicbe  &  Delacour.     La  Cagnotte 

La  Brete.     Mon  oncle  et  mon  cure" 

La  Fontaine.     Fables4 

Loti.     Pecheur  d'islande 

Micbelet.     Extracts3 

Moliere.     L'avare,  Le  bourgeois  gentilhomme 

Racine.     Athalie,  Esther 

Sand.     La  petite  Fadette 

Sandeau.     Mademoiselle  de  la  Seigliere 

Sarcey.     Le  siege  de  Paris3 

Scribed  plays 

Sevigne\     Selected  letters 

Thiers.     L'  expedition  de  Bonaparte  en  Egypte 

Vigny.     La  canne  de  jonc 

a  For  explanation  of  superior  figures  see  p.  38. 


SPANISH  45 

3  Advanced  requirement 

Aim  of  the  instruction 
At  the  end  of  the  advanced  course  the  pupil  should  be  able  to 
read  at  sight,  with  the  help  of  a  vocabulary  of  special  or  technical 
expressions,  difficult  French  not  earlier  than  that  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury ;  to  write  in  French  a  short  essay  on  some  simple  subject  con- 
nected with  the  works  read;  to  put  into  French  a  passage  of  easy 
English  prose  and  to  carry  on  a  simple  conversation  in  French. 

Work  to  be  done 

This  should  comprise  the  reading  of  from  600  to  1000  pages  of 
standard  French,  classical  and  modern,  only  difficult  passages  being 
explained  in  the  class;  the  writing  of  numerous  short  themes  in 
French ;  the  study  of  syntax. 

Suitable  reading  matter  will  be : 

Beaumarchais.     Le  barbier  de  Seville 

Corneille.     Cinna,  Horace20  ,  Le  Cid2,  Polyeucte 

Dumas.     La  question  d'argent 

Lamartine.     Graziella 

Marivaux.     Plays 

Moliere.  Le  misanthrope,  Les  femmes  savantes,  Les  pr£cieuses 
ridicules 

Musset.     Selected  plays  and  poems 

Pellissier.     Mouvement  litteraire  au  XI Xe  siecle 

Racine.     Andromaque2,  Iphig^nie1 

Renan.     Souvenirs  d'enfance  et  de  jeunesse 

Rousseau.     Selected  readings 

Sainte-Beuve.     Selected  readings 

Taine.     Les  origines  de  la  France  contemporaine 

Voltaire.     Selections  from  historical  works' 

Balzac,  De  Goncourt1,  Maupassant,  Zola.     Selections 

SPANISH 

The  requirements  in  Spanish  are  in  substantial  accord  with  the 
recommendations  made  for  French  and  German  by  the  committee 
of  twelve  of  the  Modern  Language  Association. 

1  Elementary  requirement 

Aim  of  the  instruction 
At  the  end  of  the  elementary  course  the  pupil  should  be  able  to 
pronounce  Spanish  accurately,  to  read  at  sight  easy  Spanish  prose, 
to  put  into  Spanish  simple  English  sentences  taken  from  the  lan- 

a  For  explanation^  superior  figures  see  p.  38. 


46  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

guage  of  everyday  life,  or  based  upon  a  portion  of  the  Spanish  text 
read,  and  to  answer  questions  on  the  rudiments  of  the  grammar,  as 
denned  below. 

Work   to  be  done 

During  the  first  year  the  work  should  comprise  (i)  careful  drill  in 
pronunciation ;  (2)  the  rudiments  of  grammar,  including  the  conju- 
gation of  the  regular  and  the  more  common  irregular  verbs,  the  in- 
flection of  nouns,  adjectives  and  pronouns,  and  the  elementary 
rules  of  syntax;  (3)  exercises  containing  illustrations  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  grammar;  (4)  the  reading  and  accurate  rendering  into  good 
English  of  from  100  to  175  duodecimo  pages  of  graduated  texts, 
with  translation  into  Spanish  of  easy  variations  of  the  sentences 
read ;    (5)  writing  Spanish  from  dictation. 

During  the  second  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (1)  the  read- 
ing of  from  250  to  400  pages  of  modern  prose  from  different  authors ; 
(2)  practice  in  translating  Spanish  into  English,  and  English  varia- 
tions of  the  text  into  Spanish;  (3)  continued  study  of  the  elements 
of  grammar  and  syntax;  (4)  mastery  of  all  but  the  rare  irregular 
verb  forms  and  of  the  simpler  uses  of  the  modes  and  tenses;  (5) 
writing  Spanish  from  dictation ;  (6)  memorizing  of  easy  short 
poems. 

Suitable  texts  for  the  second  year  are: 

Alarc6n.  El  nino  de  la  bola,  El  capitan  Veneno,  El  final  de  Norma 

Carri6n  &  Aza.     Zaragueta 

Fernan  Caballero.     La  familia  de  Alvareda 

Gald6s.  Dona  Perfecta,  Marianela,  El  amigo  manso,  La  corte  de 
Carlos  IV,  Electra 

Padre  Isla.     Version  of  Gil  Bias 

Valdes.     Jose' 

Valera.  El  pa^jaro  verde,  Pepita  Jimenez,  De  varios  colores,  El 
comendador  Mendoza 

2  Intermediate  requirement 

Aim  of  the  instruction 
At  the  end  of  the  intermediate  course  the  pupil  should  be  able  to 
read  at  sight  ordinary  Spanish  prose  or  simple  poetry  .  to  translate 
into  Spanish  a  connected  passage  of  English  based  on  the  text 
read,  and  to  answer  questions  involving  a  more  thorough  knowledge 
of  syntax  than  is  expected  in  the  elementary  course. 

Work   t-o   be  done 
This    should    comprise    the    reading    of    about    500    pages    of 
Spanish  of  ordinary  difficulty,   a  portion   to  be  in  the  dramatic 


SPANISH  47 

form;  constant  practice  in  giving  Spanish  paraphrases,  abstracts 
or  reproductions  from  memory  of  selected  portions  of  the  matter 
read;  writing  from  dictation;  grammatical  drill  on  all  irregular 
verb  forms  that  are  likely  to  be  met  with  in  ordinary  prose  and 
poetry;  the  science  of  vowel  change  due  to  accent;  word  forma- 
tion with  special  stress  on  the  use  of  qualifying  suffixes;  the  uses 
of  modes  and  tenses ;  syntax  of  more  advanced  grade ;  the  writing 
of  business  forms  and  commercial  correspondence. 

Suitable  texts  are: 

Ayala.     El  tanto  por  ciento 

Cervantes.     Don  Quijote,  books  1-12  and  39-41  (El  cautivo) 

Herreros.     Me  voy  de  Madrid,  Independencia,  iQuie^i  es  ella? 

Larra.     Partir  a"  tiempo 

Nunez  de  Arce.     El  haz  de  Lena,  Poemas 

Pereda.     Pedro  Sanchez,  Sotileza 

Valera.     Estudios  criticos 

Zorrilla.     Granada 


GROUP  2 

MATHEMATICS 

i  Advanced  arithmetic  4  Plane  geometry 

2  Elementary  algebra  5  Solid  geometry 

3  Intermediate  algebra  6  Trigonometry 

7  Advanced  algebra 

In  September  1902  the  American  Mathematical  Society  appointed 
a  special  committee  to  prepare  standard  formulations  of  college 
entrance  requirements  in  mathematics  in  cooperation  with  com- 
mittees already  appointed  by  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Engineering  Education  and  by  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion. During  the  two  succeeding  years  the  committee  devoted  a 
great  amount  of  time  and  energy  to  the  work  assigned  them.  After 
taking  due  account  of  previous  work  along  similar  lines  and  of 
existing  conditions  in  the  mathematical  instruction  of  colleges  and 
secondary  schools,  and  after  consulting  the  several  interests  con- 
cerned, they  prepared  a  report  which  has  been  approved  by  various 
associations  of  teachers  of  mathematics  and  boards  of  examiners. 
This  report  has  received  the  unqualified  indorsement  of  a  com- 
mittee representing  the  Associated  Academic  Principals  of  the 
State  of  New  York  and  accordingly  has  been  adopted  by  the 
Education  Department.  To  this  report,  however,  some  detailed 
suggestions  in  algebra  and  trigonometry  have  been  added  and 
likewise  a  syllabus  for  a  course  of  study  in  advanced  arithmetic. 

The  order  in  which  the  subjects  and  the  topics  under  them  are 
presented  does  not  necessarily  imply  any  preference  as  to  the  order 
of  teaching  either  the  subjects  or  the  topics. 

ADVANCED  ARITHMETIC 

This  subject  should  be  taken  after  the  student  has  completed  the 
courses  in  algebra  and  plane  geometry.  Special  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  theory  of  arithmetical  processes,  to  clearness  of 
analysis,  and  to  facility  and  accuracy  of  computation.  The 
following  outline  will  indicate  the  scope  of  the  examination. 

1  The  fundamental  operations  with  integers  and  fractions 
(common  and  decimal).  This  involves  the  following:  full 
explanation  of  the  theory  of  the  different  operations;  abridged 
processes  in  common  use;  devices  for  proving  the  correctness  of 
operations,  e.g.    "the   casting   out   of  nines";    multiples   of   and 

48 


ELEMENTARY   ALGEBRA  49 

divisibility  of  numbers ;  factoring ;  least  common  multiple ;  greatest 
common  divisor,  including  proof  by  division;  square  root;  cube 
root. 

2  Tables  and  their  use.  This  involves:  the  money  tables  of  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  France;  the  tables  of 
weights  and  measures  in  common  use  (troy  and  apothecary's  tables 
excluded) ;  the  metric  system ;  reduction  of  denominate  numbers ; 
longitude  and  time. 

3  Percentage.  Under  this  are  involved  the  principles  and 
problems  of  simple  and  compound  interest;  discount  (bank  and 
trade);  present  worth;  stocks  and  bonds;  taxes,  duties  and 
customs;  commission  and  brokerage;  partial  payments  computed 
by  the  United  States  rule;   investments  showing  loss  or  gain. 

Intricate  problems  in  compound  interest,  true  discount,  average 
of  accounts,  alligation,  duodecimals  and  partnership  involving 
time  will  not  be  included  in  the  examinations. 

4  Ratio  and  proportion.  The  principles  of  ratio  and  propor- 
tion with  their  applications  should  be  thoroughly  taught,  but 
involved  problems  in  compound  proportion  will  not  be  a  part  of 
the  examinations. 

5  Mensuration.  This  should  cover  mensuration  of  the  tri- 
angle, parallelogram,  trapezoid,  regular  polygons,  the  circle,  prism, 
cylinder,  sphere,  pyramids  and  their  frustums,  cones  and  their 
frustums;  the  applications  of  the  principles  of  mensuration  to 
measurement  of  the  areas  of  fields,  to  cubic  contents  of  tanks, 
bins,  embankments  etc. 

6  Series.     Arithmetical  and  geometric  with  their  applications. 


ELEMENTARY  ALGEBRA 

The  four  fundamental  operations  for  rational  algebraic  expressions. 

Thorough  treatment  of  these  operations  requires: 

i  The    ability   to    formulate    necessary    definitions   in    clear, 

concise  language. 
2  The  ability  to  represent  quantities  and  to  indicate  mathe- 
matical  relations    and   operations   by   means   of   algebraic 
symbols,  and  to  translate  symbolic  expressions  into  words, 
including 

a  The  algebraic  representation  of  (i)  even  numbers,  (2)  odd 
numbers,  (3)  numbers  in  decimal  notation,  (4)  common 
fractions. 


50  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

b  Removing  symbols  of  aggregation  from  given  expressions, 
and  inserting  specified  terms  of  a  polynomial  within  such 
symbols  with  facility  and  accuracy. 
Examples    free    from    ingenious    repetition    of    complications 

should  be  selected  for  practice. 

3  The  ability  to  add  or  subtract  monomials  or  polynomials 
having  either  numerical  or  literal  coefficients  and  exponents, 
with  special  attention  to  like  terms  having  polynomial 
literal  coefficients;  e.g.   (a  +  b)x  and   (2b+c)x  etc. 

4  Ability  to  find  the  product  of  monomials  or  polynomials 
having  either  numerical  or  literal  coefficients  and  exponents, 
and  to  write  by  inspection  the  expanded  forms  of  particular 
cases  of  (ax  +  b) 2 ;  (a  +  b  +  c) 2 ;  (ax  +  b)  (ax-b) ;  (x  +  a)  (x  +  b) 
and  (ax  +  6)   (cx  +  d). 

5  Ability  to  find  the  quotient  of  (a)  a  monomial  divided  by 
a  monomial,  (b)  a  polynomial  divided  by  a  monomial  or  a 
polynomial,  the  coefficients  and  exponents  in  both  cases 
being  either  numerical  or  literal,  (c)  an±bn  divided  by  a±b. 

Factoring. 

Facility  in  factoring  involves : 

i  The  recognition  of  a  monomial  factor  whenever  present. 
2  Familiarity  with  the  factors  of: 

a  Binomial,  under  the  general  form  xn±yn. 

6  Trinomial  forms    (i)    a2n  ±2anbn  +  b2n;     (2)    ax2  +  bx  +  c; 

(3)  ain  +  a2nb2n  +  bm . 
c  Polynomial  forms     (1)  ax  +  bx  +  ay  +  by;     (2)  simple  poly- 
nomials of  the  third  or  fourth  degree. 
Application  of  the  principles  of  factoring  in  finding  the  highest 
common  factor  and  the  lowest  common  multiple. 
A  clear  form  of  presentation  of  written  work  is  of  vital  im- 
portance here.     Emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  obtaining 
prime  literal  factors  of  each  given  expression  as  a  preliminary 
step.     Attention  should  be  drawn  to  the  H.C.F.  and  L.C.M. 
of   expressions    containing   factors    differing   only   in    sign; 
e.g.  i-x2  and  x2-i. 
Fractions,  including  complex  fractions. 

1  Reduction  by  factoring. 

2  Multiplication  and  division  of  fractions. 

3  Addition    and    subtraction    with    the    manipulation    of    signs 
necessary  to  obtain  the  lowest  common  denominator. 

4  Changing  a  given  fraction  to  a  mixed  expression;    a  mixed 
expression  to  a  fraction. 

5  Complex  fractions. 


ELEMENTARY    ALGEBRA  5 1 

Ratio. 

i  Necessary  definitions. 

2  A  ratio  of  greater  inequality  is  diminished  and  a  ratio  of  less 
inequality  is  increased  by  adding  the  same  quantity  to  both 
its  terms. 

3  In  a  series  of  equal  ratios,  the  sum  of  all  the  antecedents  is  to 
the  sum  of  all  the  consequents  as  any  antecedent  is  to  its 
consequent. 

Proportion. 

i   Necessary  definitions. 

2  If  four  quantities  are  in  proportion,  the  product  of  the  extremes 
is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  means  and  conversely. 

3  Transformations  that  may  be  made  in  a  proportion  by  inversion , 
alternation,  composition  and  division. 

Solutions    of    examples    under    this    heading    are    practically 
worthless  if  written  down  without  explanation. 

Simple  equations  both  numerical  and  literal  containing  one  or  more 
unknown  quantities. 

The  usual  work  under  this  heading  should  be  supplemented  by : 
i  The  solution  for  any  letter  in  the  simpler  formulas  of  physics 

in  terms  of  the  others. 
2   Problems  depending  on  simple  equations. 
See    remark    under    "Problems    depending    upon    quadratic 

equations." 

Radicals. 

i   Necessary  definitions. 

2  Reduction  (a)  to  simplest  form;  (b)  to  same  order;  (c)  to 
entire-surd. 

3  Convention  with  respect  to  taking  only  positive  sign. 

4  Four  fundamental  operations  for  surds. 

5  Rationalization  of  the  denominator  of  a  fraction  when  it  is 
a  monomial  surd  of  any  order. 

6  Rationalization  of  the  denominator  of  a  fraction  when  it  is  a 
binomial  quadratic  surd. 

7  Square  root  of  polynomial  algebraic  expressions. 

8  Square  root  of  numbers  expressed  arithmetically. 

9  Radical  equations. 

Quadratic  equations  both  numerical  and  literal. 

i   Solution  of  the  pure  quadratic. 

2  Solution  of  the  affected  quadratic,  by    (i)  completing  the 
square,   (2)  by  factoring. 


52  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

3  Equations  of  quadratic  form  involving  one  unknown  quan- 
tity. 

4  Radical  equations  resulting  in  quadratics. 

Simple  cases  of  equations  with  two  or  more  unknown  quantities 
that  can  be  solved  by  the  methods  of  simple  or  quadratic 
equations. 

i  One  simple  equation,  one  of  second  degree. 

2  Two  homogeneous  equations  of  the  second  degree. 

3  Symmetric  equations  of  the  third  or  fourth  degree  readily 
solvable  by  dividing  the  variable  member  of  one  by  the 
variable  member  of  the  other;  e.g.  x  +  y=S>  x3  +  y3=3S- 

Good  training  at  this  point  of  a  student's  work  should  lead  him 
to  consider  the  possibility  of  some  combination  of  the  given 
equations  resulting  in  simpler  forms  before  employing  a 
general  routine  method  for  the  special  case  before  him. 
Values  obtained  for  the  variables  should  be  properly  associ- 
ated in  presenting  written  answers. 

Problems  involving  quadratic  equations. 

It  is  assumed  that  students  will  be  required  throughout  the 
course  to  solve  numerous  problems  which  involve  putting 
questions  into  equations.  Some  of  these  problems  should 
be  chosen  from  mensuration,  from  physics,  and  from  com- 
mercial transactions. 

Binomial  theorem  for  positive  integral  exponents. 

i  Proof  by  induction. 

2  The  nth  term  of  a  binomial  expansion. 

INTERMEDIATE  ALGEBRA 

This  will  include  a  thorough  review  of  the  elementary  algebra 
together  with  the  following  additional  topics: 

Interpretation  of   the  forms  -,  •     '  -. 

Imaginaries. 

Four  fundamental  operations  for  imaginary  (not  complex) 
numbers. 

Exponents. 

i  Proofs'of    (a)  am.a*=am+<[t  m  and  q  positive   integers. 

(b)  am  +  aq  —  am-qi  m  and  q  positive  integers. 

(c)  (am)«  =amgt  m  and  q  positive  integers. 


INTERMEDIATE   ALGEBRA  53 

2  Meaning  of  negative  integral  exponent. 

3  Meaning  of  the  fractional  exponent. 

4  Meaning  of  zero  exponents. 

5  Involution  and  evolution  of  rational  and  surd  monomials. 
Facility  and  accuracy  in  application  of  the  principles  of  the 

theory  of  indices,  may  better  be  acquired  in  solving  a  large 
number  of  simple  exercises  than  by  struggling  with  compara- 
tively few  but  very  involved  examples. 

Evolution. 

i  Square  root  of  a  binomial  quadratic  surd. 

2  Cube  root  of  polynomials. 

3  Cube  root  of  numbers. 

Quadratic  equations. 

Theory  of  quadratic  equations,  (i)  Two  and  only  two  roots. 
(2)  Relations  between  roots  and  coefficients  of  terms.  (3) 
Formation  of  an  equation  from  two  given  roots.  (4)  Values 
of  very  simple  expressions  symmetric  in  the  roots  of  a  given 
quadratic.     (5)  Nature  of  the  roots  of  a  quadratic. 

Progressions,  arithmetical  and  geometric. 

Arithmetical. 

1  Proof  that  with  the  usual  notation  k=a  +  (n-i)d. 

2  Proof  that   with  the   usual  notation 
s=2(a+0=2  (2a+(n-i)  d). 

Applications  depending  on  these  formulas. 
Geometric. 

1  Proof  that  with  the  usual  notation  l=arn~1. 

a(i—rn ) 

2  Proof  that  with  the  usual  notation  s^=~ — . 

i-r 

3  Proof  that  with   the  usual   notation  5= —  for  an  infinite 

i-r 
series,  r<  1. 

Applications  depending  on  these  formulas. 

Graphic  interpretation  of  equations. 

1  Construction  of  the  graphs  of  numerical  equations,  both  simple 
and  quadratic. 

2  Determination  of  the  roots  of  simultaneous  numerical  equa- 
tions, both  simple  and  quadratic,  having  two  variables  by 
the  graphic  method. 


54  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 


PLANE  GEOMETRY 

The  usual  theorems  and  constructions  of  good  textbooks,  includ- 
ing the  general  properties  of  plane  rectilinear  figures;  the  circle 
and  the  measurement  of  angles;  similar  polygons;  areas;  regular 
polygons  and  the  measurement  of  the  circle. 

The  demonstration  of  original  propositions  and  the  solution  of 
numerous  problems,  including  loci  problems. 

Applications  of  principles  to  the  mensuration  of  lines  and  plane 
surfaces. 

SOLID   GEOMETRY 

The  usual  theorems  and  constructions  of  good  textbooks,  includ- 
ing the  relations  of  planes  and  lines  in  space;  the  properties  and 
measurement  of  prisms,  pyramids,  cylinders  and  cones;  the  sphere 
and  the  spherical  triangle. 

The  demonstration  of  original  propositions  and  the  solution  of 
numerous  problems,  including  loci  problems. 

Applications  of  principles  to  the  mensuration  of  surfaces  and 
solids. 

TRIGONOMETRY 

Definitions  and  relations    of   the   six    trigonometric    functions    as 
ratios;  circular  measurement  of  angles. 

Thorough  treatment  of  this  topic  should  include 

i  Consideration  of  the  functions  of  complementary  angles. 

2  Consideration  of  the  functions  of  supplementary  angles. 

3  Familiarity  with  the  expression  of  the  trigonometric  func- 
tions as  lines  in  order  that  the  student  may  readily  trace 
changes  in  sign  and  magnitude  of  a  function  as  the  angle 
varies,  and  extend  the  definitions  of  the  trigonometric 
functions  to  angles  of  any  magnitude. 

4  The  derivation  of  the  values  of  the  six  trigonometric  func- 
tions for  angles  of  300,  450,  6o°. 

Proofs  of  principal  formulas  in  particular  for  the  sine,  cosine  and 
tangent  of  the  sum  and  the  difference  of  two  angles,  of  the 
double  angle  and  the  half  angle,  the  product  expressions  for 
the  sum  or  difference  of  two  sines  or  of  two  cosines,  etc.;  the 
transformation  of  trigonometric  expressions  by  means  of  these 
formulas. 


ADVANCED  ALGEBRA  55 

Solution  of  trigonometric  equations  of  a  simple  character. 

Theory  and   use   of   logarithms    (without   the  introduction  of  work 
involving  infinite  series). 

i   Clear  definitions. 

2  Proof  that  the  logarithm  of  a  product=sum  of  logarithms  of 
its  factors. 

3  Proof  that  the  logarithm  of  a  quotient=difference  between  the 
logarithm  of  the  dividend  and  that  of  the  divisor. 

4  Proof  that  the  logarithm  of  a  power  of  a  number  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  logarithm  of  the  number  by  the  exponent  of 
the  power. 

5  Ready  use  of  tables  of  common  logarithms ;  facility  in  inter- 
polation and  use  of  the  cologarithm.  Applications  to  finding 
the  values  of  surd  expressions  and  the  functions  of  given 
angles,  etc. 

6  Solution  of  simple  exponential  equations. 

The  solution  of  right  and  oblique  triangles,  plane  and  spherical, 
and  practical  applications. 

i   Derivation  of  formulas  relative  to  right  spherical  triangles. 
2  Derivation    of   formulas   used    in    solving   the   oblique   plane 
triangle. 

ADVANCED  ALGEBRA 

The  course  in  advanced  algebra  should  cover  a  thorough  review 
of  all  of  the  topics  in  elementary  algebra  and  intermediate  algebra, 
with  more  difficult  applications  than  can  be  expected  in  the  earlier 
study  of  those  courses,  together  with  the  following  additional 
topics : 

Permutations  and  combinations  limited  to  simple  cases. 

i   Necessary  definitions  and  meaning  of  symbols  in  general  use. 

2  Derivation  of  the  formula  for  the  permutations  of  n  dissimilar 
things  taken  r  at  a  time. 

3  Derivation  of  the  formula  for  the  number  of  permutations  of 
n  things,  taken  all  together,  when  p  are  of  one  kind,  q  of 
another,  etc. 

4  Derivation  of  the  formula  for  the  number  of  combinations  of 
n  dissimilar  things,  r  together. 

5  The  number  of  combinations  of  n  dissimilar  things  rata  time 
is  equal  to  the  number  of  combinations  of  n  dissimilar  things 
n-r  at  a  time. 


$6  NEW   YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

6  Investigation  of  the  value  of  r  which  gives  the  greatest  number 
of  combinations  of  n  things  rata  time. 

7  Exercises  depending  for  solution  upon  any  of  the  foregoing 
formulas  or  principles. 

Complex  numbers  with  graphic  representation  of  sums  and  differ- 
ences. 

1  Graphic  representation  of  complex  numbers  and  of  their  sums 
and  differences. 

2  The  four  fundamental  operations  for  complex  numbers. 

Determinants,    chiefly    of    the    second,    third    and    fourth  orders 
including  the  use  of  minors  and  the  solution  of  simple  equations. 

1  Necessary  definitions  and  meaning  of  the  notation  in  general 
use. 

2  Fundamental  principles  of  determinants. 

3  Expansion  of  determinants  of  the  second,  third  and  fourth 
orders  by  general  methods. 

4  Determination  of  the  sign  of  any  particular  term. 

5  Evaluation  of  determinants  by  special  devices  suitable  to  the 
case  under  consideration. 

6  The  solution  of  simple  simultaneous  equations  by  the  aid  of 
determinants. 

Binomial  theorem. 

1  The  expansion  of  any  binomial  into  a  series,  the  exponent 
being  positive  or  negative,  integral  or  fractional. 

2  The  finding  of  any  root  of  a  number  approximately  by  the 
binomial  theorem. 

Undetermined  coefficients. 

1  Identical  equations. 

2  Expansion  of  fractions  into  series. 

3  Expansion  of  surds  into  series. 

4  Decomposition  of  rational  fractions. 

5  Reversion  of  series. 

Series. 

1  Convergency  and  divergency  of  infinite  series. 

2  Method  of  differences. 

3  Summation  of  recurring  series  of  the  first,  second  and  third 
orders. 

4  Interpolation. 

Logarithms. 

1  Meaning  of  terms  used. 

2  Distinction  between  common  and  Napierian  logarithms. 


ADVANCED  ALGEBRA  57 

3  Use  of  logarithms  in  multiplication,  division,  involution  and 
evolution. 

4  Application  of  logarithms  to  the  solution  of  exponential  equa- 
tions. 

Detached  coefficients. 

Synthetic  division  for  a  binomial  divisor,  and  the  determination 
of  the  remainder. 

Theory  of  equations. 

i  Divisibility  of  equations. 

2  Number  of  roots. 

3  Formation  of  an  equation  from  given  roots. 

4  Commensurable  roots. 

5  Composition  of  coefficients. 

6  Fractional  roots. 

7  Imaginary  roots. 

8  Transformation 

a  of  an  equation  having  fractional  coefficients  into  another  in 

which  the  coefficients  are  integral,  that  of  the  first  term 

being  unity; 
6  of  a  complete  equation  into  one  in  which  the  second  term 

is  wanting; 
c  of  an  equation  into  another  in  which  the  roots  shall  be  some 

multiple  of  the  roots  of  the  first  or  shall  differ  from  those 

of  the  first  by  a  given  quantity. 

8  Descartes's  rule  of  signs. 

9  Derived  polynomials, 
io  Multiple  roots. 

Solution  of  higher  numerical  equations. 

i  Horner's  method  of  approximation  to  the  roots  of  a  numerical 

equation. 
2  Graphs  of  equations  and  graphic  representations  of  roots. 


GROUP  3 

SCIENCE 

PHYSICAL  SCIENCE1 

Physics        Chemistry 

PHYSICS 

Topical  syllabus  in  physics 

The  course  of  instruction  in  physics  should  include : 
i   Individual  laboratory  work  consisting  of  experiments  requiring 
approximately  30  double  periods.     Each  student  should  perform 
at  least  3  5  experiments  not  very  different  from  such  as  may  be 
selected  from  the  appended  list. 

2  Instruction  by  lecture  table  demonstrations  to  be  used  mainly 
as  a  basis  for  questioning  upon  the  general  principles  of  physics  and 
their    applications. 

3  The  study  of  at  least  one  standard  textbook  to  the  end  that  the 
student  may  gain  a  comprehensive  and  connected  view  of  the  more 
important  facts  and  laws  of  elementary  physics. 

Throughout  the  course  especial  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
common  illustrations  of  physical  laws  and  to  their  industrial  applica- 
tions. 

Whenever  the  solution  of  numerical  problems  is  required,  the 
student  should  be  encouraged  to  make  use  of  the  principles  of 
algebra  and  geometry  to  reduce  the  difficulty  of  solution. 
I  Introduction. 
A  Metric  system. 

Linear  measure,  units:  meter,  centimeter,  millimeter. 
Square  measure:  centimeter  only. 
Cubic  measure :  cubic  centimeter  and  liter. 
Mass:  kilogram,  gram  and  decimal  parts. 
Ratios:  2.54,  39-37,  2-2- 
B  Definitions:  volume,  mass,  weight,  density. 
C  Masses  of  equal  volumes  are  directly  proportional  to  density. 

Volumes  of  equal  masses  are  inversely  proportional  to  density 
D  States   of   matter. 
Defined  and  explained. 
(Kinetic  theory  of  matter.) 
E  Properties  of  matter: 

1  Tenacity. 

2  Surface    tension. 

3  Capillarity. 

'In  the  preparation  of  the  syllabuses  in  physics  and  chemistry  valuable  assistance  has  been 
rendered  by  teachers  representing  the  New  York  State  Science  Teachers  Association  and  the 
High  School  Teachers  Association  of  New  York  city. 

58 


physics  59 

II  Hydrostatics. 

A  Pascal's  law. 

Problems  on  hydrostatic  press,  areas  given,  lever  omitted. 
B  Gravity  pressure. 
Varying  depth. 
"        area. 

"         density  of  liquids. 
"         direction. 
"        shape  of  vessel. 
Communicating  vessels. 
Problems  limited  to  rectangular  areas. 
C  Laws  of  buoyancy, 
i  Archimedes  principle. 

2  Laws   of  notation. 

3  Problems. 

D  Specific  gravity, 
i   Definition. 

2  Methods  are  applications  of  principles  stated  in  I  C  above. 

3  Specific  gravity  of  solids. 

a  Bodies  heavier  than  water  (weighing  in  air  and  in  water) . 
b  Bodies  lighter  than  water  (sinker  method  only). 
c  Problems. 

4  Specific  gravity  of  liquids. 
a  Bottle  method. 

b  Bulb  method. 

c  By   balancing   columns. 

d  Problems. 

III  Pneumatics. 

Gas  pressure  is  due  to  (i)  gravity,  (2)  molecular  motion. 
A  Atmospheric  pressure. 

1  Evidences  of  (qualitative). 

2  Measurement  by  barometer. 

B  Pressure  due  to  molecular  motion. 

Boyle's  law. 
C  Applications. 

Pumps. 

Air  pumps  (mechanical  only) . 

Lifting  pump. 

Force  pump,  air  dome  included. 

Siphon. 

IV  Statics  of  solids. 

A  General  conditions  of  equilibrium.     (Two  kinds  of  motion, 
rotary  and  translatory,  must  be  prevented.) 


60  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

B  Simplest  case  of  equilibrium,  two  forces  only. 

Definition  of  resultant  and  equilibrant. 
C  Equilibrium  of  three  parallel  forces.     Show  the  following  facts: 

i  Two  forces  in  one  direction,  and  one  in  the  opposite  direction. 

2  The  opposing  force  is  between  the  other  two. 

3  The  opposing  force  equals  the  sum  of  the  other  two. 

4  Any  two  of  the  forces  are  inversely  proportional  to  their 
distances  from  the  third  force. 

5  Problems. 

D  Moment  of  a  force  defined  and  explained. 

E  Equilibrium  of  any  number  of  parallel  forces. 

Problems. 
F  General  law  of  gravitation. 

Weight:  a  special  case,  the  earth  being  one  of  the  two  bodies 
attracting    each    other, 
i  Causes  of  variation  of  weight. 

2  Weight  of  a  body  defined  as  the  resultant  of  the  gravitation 
of  the  parts  of  the  body. 

3  Weight  is  proportional  to  mass. 
G  Center  of  gravity. 

i  Defined  as  the  point  of  application  of  the  force  called  weight. 

2  C.  of  G.  determined. 

3  Problems. 

H  States  of  equilibrium. 

Stable. 

Unstable. 

Neutral. 
/  Equilibrium  of  three  concurrent  forces. 

i  Parallelogram. 

2  Resolution  of  forces  (rectangular  components  only). 

3  Problems. 
V  Kinetics. 

A  Define  force,  motion,  velocity. 
B  Uniform  motion. 

i  Newton's  first  law:  inertia. 

2  Problems. 
C  Variable  motion. 

i   Define  acceleration. 

2  Uniformly  accelerated  motion  (if  initial  or  final  velocity  is 
zero). 

Problems. 

3  Falling  bodies  (A  =  G  =  980  or  32)  a  special  case. 


PHYSICS  6l 

D  i  Momentum  defined.     Rate  of  change  of  momentum. 

2  Newton's  second  law,   "A  force  is  measured  by  the  change 

in  momentum  produced  in  unit  time."     F  =  M  A  or  F  T 
=  MV, 

3  Unit  force  gives  to  a  unit  mass  a  unit  acceleration. 

4  Weight  of  unit  mass  =  980  CGS  units  of  force  or  32  FPS 

units. 
E  Newton's  third  law.     To  every  action  there  is  an  equal  and 

opposite  reaction. 
F  1  Work  defined,  and  formula,  Work  =  FL  . 

Problems. 

2  Energy  defined. 

3  Units  of  work  and  of  energy,  erg  and  foot  pound  only, 

=  Unit  force  acting  through  unit  distance. 
G  1  Law  of  conservation  of  energy. 
2  Kinds  of  energy. 
a  Potential  energy  defined  and  determined  as  equal  to  FL 

from  law  of  conservation  of  energy. 
b  Kinetic  energy  defined. 
Problems. 
H  Power   defined. 

Unit  of  power  defined. 
Problems. 
/  Machines,  mechanical  advantage,  (problems) ,  mechanical  effi- 
ciency defined  and  discussed.    (Use  terms  effort  and  resist- 
ance.) 
J  Lever,  wheel  and  axle. 

Problems. 
K  Pulley. 

1  Single  fixed. 

2  Single  movable. 

3  Any  number  of  pulleys  with  a  continuous  cord. 
Problems. 

L  Inclined  plane.     (Effort  parallel  to  incline.) 
Problems. 
M  Curvilinear  motion:  centripetal  force  qualitatively  illustrated. 
N  Laws  of  simple  pendulum. 

1  As  to  amplitude  of  vibration. 

2  As  to  weight  of  bob. 

3  As  to  length  of  pendulum. 
Problems. 


62  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

VI  Heat. 

A   Heat  defined  from  standpoint  of  kinetic  theory. 

B  Temperature  denned  from  standpoint  of  law  of  exchange. 

C  Measurement  of  temperature. 

i  Construction  of  mercury  and  glass  thermometer  explained. 

2  Graduation  of  a  thermometer  and  location  of  fixed  points. 

3  Reduction  of  C  and  F  thermometer  scales. 
Problems. 

4  Limitations  of  liquid  thermometers. 

5  Metallic  thermometers. 
a  Compound  bar. 

b  Expansion  of  a  wire. 

6  Air  thermometer:  simplest  form. 
D  Sources  of  heat. 

i   Sun. 

2  Interior  of  earth. 

3  Chemical  change. 

4  Friction. 

5  Impact. 

6  Compression. 

E  Transmission  or  diffusion  of  heat. 
i  Conduction.    ^ 

2  Convection.      >  Defined  and  discussed. 

3  Radiation.       J 
F  Effects  of  heat. 

i  Expansion. 
a  Of  solids. 

b  Coefficient  of  linear  expansion.     Problems. 
c  Expansion   of   liquids— anomalous  expansion   of  water. 
d  Expansion  of  gases. 
e  Absolute  zero. 
/   Law  of  Charles. 
Problems. 

2  Change  of  state. 
a  Fusion. 

b  Vaporization,   (i)   Boiling.   (2)   Evaporation. 

3  Rise  of  temperature. 
a  Calorie  defined. 

b  Law  of  exchange  of  heat. 
c  Specific  heat   defined   and   determined. 
Problems. 


PHYSICS  63 

G  1   Heat  of  fusion  defined  and  determined. 
Problems. 
2  Heat  of  vaporization  defined  and  determined. 
Problems. 
H  Heat  and  work. 

1  Joule's  equivalent. 

2  Simple  noncondensing  steam  engine. 

3  Gas  engine. 
VII  Sound. 

A  Origin  of  sound. 

B  Propagation  of  sound  waves. 

1  Amplitude  of  wave  and  loudness. 

2  Length  of  wave  and  pitch. 

3  Form  of  wave  and  quality  or  timbre. 

4  Velocity  of  sound. 

C  Reflection  of  sound,  echoes. 

D  Resonance. 

E  Interference  of  sound,   beats. 

F  Harmony  and  discord. 

G  Vibration  of  rods  or  bars  free  at  one  end  (effect  of  length). 

H  Vibration  of  strings  (effect  of  length,  tension,  and  mass  per 

-     unit  of  length). 
/  Pitch  of  open  and  closed  pipes. 
VIII  Light. 

A  Discussion  of  radiant  energy. 

1  The  ether. 

2  Transverse    waves. 

3  Wave  length. 

4  Light  waves  contrasted  with  heat  waves  as  to : 
a  Wave  length. 

b  Effects. 

5  Velocity  of  light. 
B  Definitions: 

Light,  luminous  bodies,  illuminated  bodies,  transparent,  trans- 
lucent and  opaque  bodies. 
C  Rectilinear  propogation  of  light  in  a  homogeneous  medium- 

1  Shadows. 

2  Pinhole  camera. 
D  Photometry. 

1  Intensity  of  light  (source)  and  intensity  of  illumination  dis- 
tinguished. 

2  Law  of  inverse  squares. 


64  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

3  Bunsen  photometer. 

4  Problems. 
E  Reflection. 

1  Law  of  reflection. 

2  Regular. 

3  Irregular  (visibility  of  illuminated  objects). 

4  Plane  mirrors,  position  and  character  of  image. 
F  Refraction. 

1  Definition. 

2  Explanation. 

3  Index  of  refraction. 

4  Laws  of  refraction. 

5  Total  reflection. 

a  Critical  angle  defined. 

6  Refraction  by  parallel  sided  plates. 

7  Refraction  by  prisms. 

8  Lenses: 

a  Definition. 

b  Classification. 

c  Definitions  of  focus,  conjugate  focuses,  principal  focus, 
center  of  curvature,  optical  center,  principal  axis,  second- 
ary axis. 

9  Position  and  character  of  images  formed  by  converging  and 
diverging  lenses. 

10  Real  and  virtual  images  defined. 

11  Graphical  determination  of  size  and  position   of  images 
formed  by  lenses. 

I         I        I 

1 2  Problems.        —  = 1 

F       Do       Di 

13  So  :  Si  ::  D0  :  Di 

S  =  diameter. 
IX  Magnetism  and  electricity. 
A  Magnets,  magnetic  substance. 

B  Magnets,  natural  and  artificial;  permanent  and  temporary. 
C  Polarity.     Laws  of  magnetic  force: 

1  As  to  like  and  unlike  poles. 

2  As  to  distance  between  poles. 
Problems. 

D  Magnetic  induction  and  molecular  theory  of  magnetism. 
E  Magnetic  fields  and  lines  of  magnetic  force  defined  and  dis- 
cussed. 


PHYSICS  65 

F  Terrestrial  magnetism  evidenced  by: 

1  Magnetic  compass. 

2  Magnetic  declination. 

3  Dip. 

4  Magnetic  induction  of  the  earth. 
X  Current  electricity. 

A  Action  in  simple  cell: 

1  Chemical  changes. 

2  Theory  of  the  production  of  difference  of  potential. 

3  Local  action  and  polarization. 
B  Daniell  cell. 

C  Effects  of  current  (qualitatively  illustrated). 

1  Magnetic. 

a  Electromagnet. 

b  Relation  between  direction  of  current  and  direction  of 
magnetic  lines  of  force. 

2  Heating. 

a  Fuse  wire. 

b  Electric  heater. 

3  Chemical. 

a  Electrolysis  of  water. 
b  Electroplating. 
c  Storage  cell. 
D  Electrical  quantities  and  units. 

1  E.M.F.:  volt. 

2  Current:  ampere. 

3  Resistance:  ohm. 

4  Power:  watt  and  kilowatt-hour. 

E 
E  Ohm's  law:  C  =  — 
R 
Problems. 
F  Measuring    instruments:    galvanometer,  ammeter,  voltmeter, 

resistance  coils  (rheostat). 
G  Grouping  of  cells. 

1  Series. 

2  Parallel. 

Problems. 

E 

H  Determination  of  internal  resistance  of  a  cell  bv  C  = 

R  +  r 
K  L 

I  Laws  of  resistance   of  wires :     R  = 

Problems.  D2 


66  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

/  Joint  resistance  and  current  division  in  a  divided  circuit. 

Problems. 
K  Fall  of  potential  in  a  circuit. 

Problems. 
L  Wheatstone's  bridge. 

Problems. 
M  Induced  E.M.F. 

i  How  produced. 

2  Intensity. 

3  Direction. 

N  Simple  dynamo  two  pole  field,  single  rotating  loop,  alternat- 
ing and  direct. 
O  Simple  electric  motor,  two  pole,  H  armature. 
P  Applications: 
i  Arc  lamp. 

2  Incandescent  lamp. 

3  Telegraph. 

4  Telephone. 

5  Electric  bell. 
XI  Static  electricity. 

A  Electrification  by  friction;  two  kinds  of  electrification. 
B  Law  of  attraction  and  repulsion ;  gold  leaf  electroscope. 
C  Conductors  and  insulators;  electrification  by  induction. 
D  Difference  of  electric  potential  of  two  points. 

Laboratory  syllabus  in  physics 

Notebooks — general  directions,  i  The  purpose  of  each  experi- 
ment should  be  clearly  stated  in  a  brief  title. 

2  A  brief  description,  usually  accompanied  by  a  drawing,  should 
show  how  the  experiment  was  done.  Descriptions  should  be 
expressed  in  definite  and  complete  sentences,  and  drawings  should 
show  the  essential  parts  of  the  apparatus  at  the  most  significant 
part  of  the  experiment.  Drawings  should  be  made  in  the  form  of 
plain  outline  diagrams  and  should  aim  at  simple  accuracy  rather 
than  at  artistic  finish. 

3  Numerical  data  should  always  be  recorded  in  neat  tabulations. 

4  Descriptions,  drawings,  observations  and  numerical  data  should 
be  confined  to  left-hand  pages  of  notebooks.  Statements  of  rea- 
soning, calculations  and  conclusions  should  be  written  on  right- 
hand  pages.  Calculations  should  be  written  out  in  full  with  inter- 
mediate and  final  results  definitely  named.  Conclusions  should 
refer  directly  to  the  expressed  purpose   of  the  experiment  and 


physics  6y 

should  follow  from  the  data  and  reasoning  as  clearly  and  logically 
as  the  conclusion  of  a  proposition  in  geometry  follows  from  the 
given  conditions  and  the  proof.  This  arrangement  of  notes  is 
not  applicable  to  chemistry. 

5  Experiments  marked  with  a  *  are  regarded  as  fundamental 
and  should  be  included  in  every  laboratory  course.  The  remain- 
ing 10  experiments  necessary  to  complete  the  minimum  require- 
ment may  be  selected  according  to  the  equipment  of  the  school 
and  the  judgment  of  the  teacher. 

6  Experiments  not  performed  by  the  student  should  in  general 
be  performed  by  the  teacher  as  demonstration  exercises  to  be 
observed  and  discussed  by  the  class.  Brief  notes  of  these  and  other 
demonstration  exercises  should  be  taken  in  class  and  written  carefully 
in  the  notebooks  out  of  class.  Notes  of  experiments  and  of  demon- 
strations should  appear  together  in  the  notebooks  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  done.  They  should  be  numbered  separately, 
however,  as  experiment  i,  experiment  2,  etc.  and  demonstration 
1,  demonstration  2,  etc. 

7  Every  notebook  should  contain  an  index  at  the  beginning 
showing  the  title  of  each  experiment  and  demonstration,  and  the 
page  on  which  it  may  be  found. 

INDEX  OF  EXPERIMENTS  PERFORMED 


No.  of 
exp. 

Title  of  experiment 

Page 

. 

I 

1 

1 

!                                                                                                                                                                     I 

1 

8  When  the  notebook  has  been  completed,  the  teacher  should 
attach  the  following  certificate  to  the   inside  of  the  front  cover: 

High  School N.  Y. 

190. . 

This   notebook    contains    the  original  record  of  work  done  by 

in  the   laboratory   of  the 

High  School  under  my  immedi- 
ate supervision.  The  records  of  expsriments  on  the  left-hand 
pages  were  written  in  the  laboratory  at  the  time  when  the  experi- 
ments were  performed. 

[Signed] 

Teacher  of 


68  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

9  A  student  taking  the  Department's  examination  must  prepare 
a  copy  of  the  index  of  his  notebook  and  attach  it  to  his  answer 
paper  at  the  time  of  the  examination.  This  copy  of  the  index 
must  bear  (i)  the  teacher's  indorsement  certifying  that  it  is  a  true 
abstract  of  the  student's  work,  and  (2)  the  teacher's  rating  of  the 
notebook  based  upon  a  scale  of  20.  Notebooks,  not  submitted 
to  colleges  as  a  part  of  the  entrance  requirement,  must  be  access- 
ible to  the  inspectors  and  be  subject  to  the  call  of  the  Department 
for  a  period  of  six  months  subsequent  to  the  completion  of  the 
course. 

10  Schools- not  equipped  to  perform  as  many  as  35  experiments 
may  offer  18  experiments  selected  from  those  designated  by  a  star. 
In  such  cases  notebooks  shall  be  rated  on  a  basis  of  10  credits  for 
maximum  excellence. 

1 1  Directions  for  performing  experiments  are  to  be  regarded  as  sug- 
gestive rather  than  mandatory.  It  is  expected  that  progressive 
teachers  will  adapt  methods  to  conditions  obtaining  in  their  several 
schools. 

Experiment  1* 

MEASUREMENTS  OF  LENGTHS,  AREAS  AND  VOLUMES 

Measure  the  various  dimensions  of  a  solid,  of  regular  geo- 
metric shape,  in  centimeters  and  in  inches.  Calculate  the  areas 
of  the  several  faces  in  square  centimeters  and  in  square  inches. 
Calculate  the  volumes  of  the  solid  in  cubic  centimeters  and  in  cubic 
inches.  Determine  the  volume  of  the  solid  also  by  the  displacement 
of  water  in  a  graduate. 

Experiment  2* 

MASS    OF    UNIT    VOLUME    OF    A    SOLID 

Weigh  several  solids  whose  volumes  have  been  found,  and  thus 
determine  their  masses.  From  their  masses  and  volumes  find  their 
several  densities. 

Experiment  3 

GRAVITY    PRESSURE    OF    LIQUIDS 

By  submerging  a  suitable  gage  in  water  to  various  depths,  de- 
termine the  relative  pressures  of  the  water  at  those  depths.  At  any 
chosen  depth  turn  the  face  of  the  gage  in  several  directions  without 
raising  or  lowering  the  center  of  the  face.  What  relation  between 
pressure  and  direction  ?     What  relation  between  pressure  and  depth  ? 


PHYSICS  69 

Experiment  4 
ARCHIMEDES    PRINCIPLE!    SINKING    BODIES 

Find  the  loss  of  weight  in  water  of  some  sinking  solid,  and  with 
the  aid  of  an  overflow  can  find  the  weight  of  the  water  displaced. 
What  relation  between  the  two  results?  How  might  the  result  of 
this  experiment  have  been  anticipated  from  the  conclusion  of 
experiment  3? 

Experiment  5 

ARCHIMEDES    PRINCIPLE:    FLOATING    BODIES 

Weigh  some  body  less  dense  than  water,  and  then  as  in  experi- 
ment 4  find  the  weight  of  the  water  it  displaces.  What  relation 
between  the  two  weights?  How  is  the  result  of  this  experiment 
related  to  the  result  of  experiment  3  ? 

Experiment  6* 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    OF    HEAVY    SOLIDS 

Weigh  at  least  three  different  solids  in  air  and  in  water.  From 
the  conclusion  of  experiment  4,  find  the  specific  gravity  of  each. 

Experiment  7 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    OF    LIGHT    SOLIDS 

Weigh  some  light  solid,  such  as  wood,  in  air.  Weigh  a  suitable 
sinker  in  water,  and  then  weigh  the  light  body  and  the  sinker  in 
water.  From  the  conclusions  of  experiments  4  and  5  calculate  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  light  solid. 

Experiment  8 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    OF    LIQUIDS 

1  Weigh  an  empty  stoppered  bottle ;  then  weigh  when  filled  with 
water,  and  again  when  filled  with  another  liquid.  Find  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  other  liquid. 

2  Weigh  a  heavy  solid  in  air,  in  water,  and  in  another  liquid. 

From  the  conclusion  of  experiment  4  find  the  specific  gravity  of  the 

other  liquid. 

Experiment  9 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    OF    AIR 

Weigh  a  large  empty  bottle  (of  at  least  2  quarts  capacity)  fitted 
with  tight  rubber  stopper  and  pinchcock.  Pump  the  air  from  the 
bottle  and  weigh  again.  Open  the  pinchcock  under  water  and 
later  weigh  the  bottle  with  the  water  that  has  taken  the  place  of  the 
exhausted  air.     Calculate  the  specific  gravity  of  the  air. 


JO  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  bottle  and  fittings  are 
perfectly  dry  at  first.  No  large  weights  should  be  taken  from  or 
added  to  the  balance  between  the  first  and  second  weighings.  It  is 
best  to  obtain  this  difference  of  weight  by  moving  the  rider. 

Experiment  10 
BOYLE'S    LAW 

Find  by  means  of  a  J  tube  with  short  arm  closed,  or  with  a  gas 
burette,  several  volumes  of  the  same  mass  of  dry  air  when  sub- 
jected to  different  pressures  obtained  by  pouring  mercury  into  the 
open  arm  (the  barometric  pressure  at  the  time  of  the  experiment 
to  be  used  as  the  initial  pressure). 

What  relation  between  the  volume  of  the  air  and  the  total  pres- 
sure to  which  it  is  subjected? 

Experimental  i* 

EQUILIBRIUM    OF    THREE    PARALLEL    FORCES    IN    ONE    PLANE 

By  means  of  three  spring  balances  or  two  balances  and  a  weight, 
find  the  values  of  three  parallel  forces  acting  at  several  different 
positions  on  a  rod.  What  relation  between  the  total  force  operating 
in  one  direction  and  the  total  force  operating  in  the  opposite 
direction  ?  What  relation  between  the  two  outside  forces  and  their 
respective  distances  from  the  middle  force  ?  What  general  relation 
between  any  two  forces  and  their  respective  distances  from  the 
third  force? 

Experiment  12 

PRINCIPLE    OF    MOMENTS 

With  four  or  more  spring  balances  apply  parallel  forces  at  various 
points  on  a  rod  so  as  to  produce  equilibrium.  How  does  the  sum  of 
the  forces  operating  in  one  direction  compare  with  the  sum  of  the 
forces  operating  in  the  opposite  direction?  How  does  the  sum  of 
the  moments  tending  to  produce  clockwise  rotation  compare  with 
the  sum  of  the  moments  tending  to  produce  counter-clockwise 
rotation?  Does  this  relation  of  moments  depend  upon  the  point 
selected  as  the  axis  of  rotation?  What  points,  then,  may  be 
selected  as  axes  of  rotation? 

Experiment  13* 

TO    FIND  THE  POINT  OF  APPLICATION  OF  THE  WEIGHT  OF  A  BODY 

Weigh  an  irregular  bar  of  wood  (e.g.  a  lath  with  a  block  of  wood 
nailed  to  one  end)  and  balance  it  over  a  fulcrum  to  locate  its  center 


PHYSICS  71 

of  gravity.     Hang  a  known  weight  to  some  part  of  the  bar  and 

balance  over  a  fulcrum  again.     By  the  law  of  moments  found  in 

experiment  12,  calculate  the  distance  from  the  fulcrum  to  the  point 

at  which  the  weight  of  the  bar  must  act  in  order  to  balance  the 

known  weight.     How  far  is  this  point  from  the  center  of  gravity  of 

the  bar  ? 

Experiment  14 

EQUILIBRIUM    OF    FOUR    FORCES    AT    RIGHT    ANGLES     IN     ONE    PLANE 

On  glass  marbles  support  horizontally  a  square  board  in  which 
are  seven  rows  of  holes  at  equal  intervals,  each  row  containing 
seven  holes.  With  spring  balances  apply  four  forces  at  right 
angles  so  that  equilibrium  is  produced.  Note  the  direction,  mag- 
nitude, and  point  of  application  of  each  force. 

What  relation  between  the  two  forces  acting  in  opposite  direc- 
tions? What  relation  between  the  magnitudes  of  the  two  pairs 
of  parallel  forces  and  the  respective  distances  between  them? 
Select  any  hole  in  the  board  as  an  axis  of  rotation  and  find  the  sum 
of  the  moments  of  all  the  forces  with  respect  to  that  axis.  Select 
at  least  one  other  hole  and  repeat  the  calculation.  What  genera  1 
law  of  moments  seems  to  be  demonstrated? 

Experiment  15* 

EQUILIBRIUM   OF  THREE   CONCURRENT   FORCES   IN   ONE   PLANE 

The  parallelogram  of  forces 

With  three  spring  balances  pull  upon  three  strings  that  meet 
at  a  point.  Slide  the  notebook  under  the  strings  and  record 
accurately  the  direction  and  magnitude  of  each  force.  Draw 
lines  to  represent  the  positions  of  the  strings,  and  measuring 
from  the  point  of  meeting  lay  off  distances  to  represent  the  mag- 
nitudes of  the  forces.  Upon  two  lines  construct  a  parallelogram 
and  draw  a  diagonal  from  the  point  of  meeting.  How  does  this 
diagonal  compare  in  direction  and  magnitude  with  the  line  repre- 
senting the  third  original  force? 

Experiment  16 

RESOLUTION    OF    A    SINGLE    FORCE    INTO    TWO  COMPONENTS  AT  RIGHf 

ANGLES 

Suspend  a  known  weight  from  a  point  on  the  vertical  side  of  a 
post  or  bar  of  wood  fixed  in  an  upright  position.  A  spring  balance 
should  be  included  in  the  upper  part  of  the  suspending  cord,  and 
a  light  wooden  rod  about   15  inches  long  should  be  placed  as  a 


J2  NEW    YORK    SPATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

horizontal  brace  about  18  inches  below  the  point  of  suspension 
to  hold  the  weight  away  from  the  upright  bar.  Attach  a  spring 
balance  to  the  outer  end  of  the  horizontal  bar  and  note  what  ten- 
sion is  required  acting  horizontally  to  permit  the  released  bar  to 
fall.  Draw  a  right  triangle  whose  sides  shall  represent  the  upright 
bar,  the  horizontal  rod  and  the  slanting  string,  and  find  the  values 
of  the  vertical  and  horizontal  components  of  the  tension  of  the 
first  spring  balance. 

Experiment  17* 

THE    INCLINED    PLANE,    WITH    FORCE    PARALLEL    TO    PLANE 

Incline  a  smooth  board  or  plate  of  glass  at  an  angle  of  about  300 
with  the  horizon,  and  with  a  spring  balance  find  the  force  necessary 
to  draw  a  small  loaded  car  up  the  incline.  This  force  may  be  found 
by  pushing  the  car  gently  up  the  incline  and  letting  it  follow  the 
finger  slowly  back  to  a  position  of  rest  and  then  pushing  the  car  a 
little  down  the  incline  and  letting  it  follow  the  finger  to  a  position  of 
rest.  The  average  of  the  two  balance  readings  at  rest  will  be  the 
true  force  required  to  sustain  or  move  the  car  with  the  effect  of 
friction  eliminated.  Calculate  the  work  necessary  to  move  the 
car  along  the  plane  between  any  two  selected  points.  Calculate 
also  the  work  necessary  to  lift  the  weight  of  the  car  through  the 
vertical  hight  represented  by  the  difference  of  level  of  the  two 
points.  How  do  the  two  amounts  of  work  compare  with  each 
other? 

Experiment  18 

UNIFORMLY  ACCELERATED  MOTION 

With  an  Atwood's  machine  or  with  a  smooth  ball  rolling  down 
an  inclined  plane  find  the  law  of  relation  between  total  acceleration 
and  the  time  during  which  the  accelerating  force  has  been  operating. 

Experiment  19* 

LAWS  OF  THE  PENDULUM!    AMPLITUDE,  MASS,  LENGTH 

Swing  pendulums  of  equal  lengths  but  of  different  weights  through 
"equal  arcs  and  note  the  number  of  vibrations  a  minute.  Swing 
the  same  pendulum  through  short  and  long  arcs  and  note  the  num- 
ber of  vibrations  a  minute.  Note  the  number  of  vibrations  a 
minute  for  pendulums  of  various  lengths  and  find  what  relation 
there  is  between  the  length  of  a  pendulum  and  its  number  of  vibra- 
tions a  minute. 


physics  73 

Experiment  20* 
TESTING  THE  FIXED  POINTS  OF  A  THERMOMETER 

Completely  cover  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  with  cracked  ice 
contained  in  a  funnel,  and  record  the  thermometer  reading.  Place 
the  thermometer  in  the  steam  over  a  flask  of  boiling  water  and 
note  the  reading.  From  the  barometer  reading  at  the  time  of 
the  experiment  calculate  the  true  temperature  of  steam.  What 
is  the  freezing  point  error  of  your  thermometer?  What  is  its  boiling 
point  error? 

Experiment  21 

COEFFICIENT  OF  LINEAR  EXPANSION 

By  means  of  a  steam  jacket  and  magnifying  lever  find  how  much 
a  rod  of  brass,  iron  or  aluminum  increases  in  length  for  a  known 
rise  of  temperature.  By  calculation  find  how  much  a  rod  1  centi- 
meter long  would  increase  in  length  for  a  rise  of  i°  C. 

Experiment  22 
INCREASE    OF    VOLUME    OF    AIR   HEATED    UNDER    CONSTANT    PRESSURE 

Obtain  a  heavy  glass  tube  about  40  centimeters  long  and  1.5 
millimeters  in  diameter  of  bore.  This  tube  should  be  sealed  at  one 
end,  filled  with  thoroughly  dry  air  (drawn  through  a  bath  of  sulphuric 
acid  nearly  filled  with  broken  glass  beads)  and  stopped  near  the  open 
end  with  a  mercury  column  about  4  centimeters  long.  Hold  the 
tube  either  vertically  or  horizontally  first  in  a  bath  of  cracked  ice 
and  water  and  then  in  a  bath  of  free  steam.  Measure  the  length  of 
the  air  column  both  at  the  highest  and  the  lowest  temperature,  and 
also  note  the  barometer  reading.  Find  by  what  fractional  part  of 
its  own  volume  a  cubic  centimeter  of  air  would  be  increased  while 
its  temperature  is  raised  from  o°  C  to  i°C. 

Experiment  23 
LAW    OF    HEAT    EXCHANGE,    METHOD    OF    MIXTURES 

At  several  different  trials  mix  two  known  masses  of  hot  and  cold 
water  at  known  temperatures,  and  note  the  temperature  of  each 
mixture.  Calculate  from  the  masses  and  changes  of  temperature 
the  number  of  calories  lost  and  gained  by  the  hot  and  cold  water 
respectively. 

How  is  the  temperature  change  of  each  body  of  water  related  to 
its  mass? 


74  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Experiment  24* 
SPECIFIC    HEAT    OP    A    SOLID 

Wind  a  strip  of  copper,  lead  or  zinc  about  3  centimeters  wide  and 
long  enough  to  make  a  coil  weighing  400  or  500  grams,  into  a  com- 
pact coil.  Suspend  the  coil  in  free  steam  for  about  five  minutes  and 
then  plunge  it  into  a  known  mass  (100  to  150  grams)  of  cold  water 
at  a  known  temperature  and  note  the  resulting  temperature.  How 
much  heat  is  lost  by  one  gram  of  the  metal  while  its  temperature 
falls  one  degree? 

Experiment  25* 

HEAT    OF    FUSION    OF    ICE 

Put  about  100  grams  of  dry  ice  in  small  lumps  into  about  200 
grams  of  hot  water  (about  5o°C)  of  known  temperature,  and  note 
the  resulting  temperature.  Weigh  again  to  find  the  exact  weight  of 
the  ice  used.     How  much  heat  was  used  to  melt  1  gram  of  ice? 

Experiment  26 

HEAT    OF    VAPORIZATION    OF    WATER 

Pass  dry  steam  into  a  known  mass  of  cold  water,  whose  known 
temperature  is  about  io°  lower  than  the  temperature  of  the  room, 
till  the  resulting  temperature  is  about  io°  higher  than  that  of  the 
the  room.  Weigh  again  to  find  the  mass  of  the  steam  introduced. 
By  calculation  find  how  much  heat  is  given  out  by  a  gram  of  steam 
in  changing  from  vapor  to  boiling  water. 

Sound 
Experiment  27 

VELOCITY     OF     SOUND     IN    AIR 

Arrange  a  large  pendulum  that  may  be  seen  for  a  considerable 
distance  so  that  it  will  beat  half  seconds.  The  pendulum  should  be 
screened  so  that  it  may  be  seen  only  in  the  middle  part  of  the  swing. 
A  sharp  sound  like  the  stroke  of  a  hammer  on  a  board  or  box  should 
be  made  immediately  behind  the  screen  regularly  as  the  pendulum 
reaches  the  lowest  point  of  its  arc.  Observers  should  move  away 
from  or  toward  the  pendulum  till  the  sound  of  each  stroke  of  the 
hammer  reaches  them  at  the  same  time  with  the  next  beat  of  the 
pendulum.  The  distance  from  the  observer  to  the  pendulum  will 
represent  the  velocity  of  sound  per  half  second. 


physics  75 

Experiment  28* 

THE    WAVE    LENGTH    OF    A    SOUND 

With  a  tuning  fork  and  large  (i£  inches)  glass  tube  to  be  raised 
and  lowered  in  a  jar  of  water  find  the  quarter  wave  length  of  the 
sound  given  by  the  fork.  From  the  results  of  experiment  27  find 
about  how  many  times  a  second  the  fork  must  vibrate. 

Experiment  29* 

NUMBER    OF    VIBRATIONS    OF    A    TUNING    FORK 

With  a  diapason  tuning  fork  having  large  amplitude  of  vibration, 
and  a  heavy  pendulum  provided  with  a  stylus  or  bristle  obtain 
simultaneous  records  of  the  vibrations  of  the  fork  and  pendulum 
upon  smoked  glass.  Count  the  vibrations  of  the  pendulum  for 
several  minutes  to  obtain  its  average  rate  a  minute.  Then  by  com- 
parison of  records  on  the  glass  find  the  number  of  vibrations  of  the 
fork  a  second. 

Light 

Experiment  30* 

Place  a  paper  screen  with  an  oiled  or  paraffined  spot  in  its  center 
between  a  candle  on  one  side  and  a  group  of  four  similar 
candles  on  the  other.  Move  the  screen  back  and  forth  until  a 
position  is  found  at  which  it  is  equally  illuminated  from  both  sides. 
Note  the  distance  from  the  screen  to  each  source  of  light.  Repeat 
with  two  or  three  candles  on  one  side  of  the  screen  and  one  on  the 
other.  What  relation  between  the  two  distances  and  the  quantity 
of  light  sent  from  each  source? 

Experiment  31* 

LAW  OF  REFLECTION  OF  LIGHT 

Upon  a  horizontal  sheet  of  paper  stand  a  plane  mirror,  and  draw 
a  line  marking  the  position  of  the  face  of  the  mirror.  Stick  a  pin 
vertically  in  the  paper  about  5  centimeters  in  front  of  the  mirror. 
Locate  the  image  of  the  pin  by  two  widely  divergent  sight  lines. 
How  are  the  pin  and  image  located  with  respect  to  the  face  of  the 
mirror?  From  the  place  where  one  of  the  sight  lines  crosses  the 
mirror  line  draw  a  line  to  the  pin.  This  marks  the  path  of  the 
incident  ray  from  the  pin  to  the  mirror.  At  the  point  of  incidence 
erect  a  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  the  mirror  and  measure  the 
angles  of  incidence  and  of  reflection.  How  do  these  two  angles 
compare  ? 


j6  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Experiment  32 

IMAGES  IN  A  PLANE  MIRROR 

Repeat  experiment  28  placing  a  drawing  of  a  scalene  triangle 
in  front  of  the  mirror.  Locate  the  images  of  the  vertices  of  the 
triangle  and  construct  the  image  of  the  triangle.  What  conclu- 
sions may  be  made  in  reference  to  the  position,  character,  and  size 
of  the  image? 

Experiment  33 

IMAGES  IN  A  CONCAVE  MIRROR 

By  methods  of  experiments  28  and  29  determine  the  position, 
size  and  character  of  the  image  formed  by  a  concave  mirror  when 
the  object  is  placed  (1)  within  the  principal  focal  distance,  (2) 
between  the  focus  and  the  center  of  curvature,  (3)  outside  the 
center  of  curvature.  Verify  the  equation  of  the  sum  of  the  recip- 
rocals of  conjugate  focal  distances  with  twice  the  reciprocal  of  the 
radius.  What  relation  between  the  sizes  of  images  and  their  dis- 
tances from  the  mirror? 

Experiment  34 

THE   PATH   OF  A   RAY   OF   LIGHT   PASSING  THROUGH   A  GLASS   PRISM 

Place  a  glass  prism  (a  plate  of  glass  about  5  centimeters  square 
is  best)  on  a  horizontal  sheet  of  paper  and  by  sighting  with  pins 
as  markers  find  the  path  of  a  ray  of  light  by  which  some  object 
is  seen  through  the  glass.  In  what  direction  is  a  ray  of  light  de- 
flected in  passing  from  a  rarer  to  a  denser  medium,  in  passing  from 
a  denser  to  a  rarer  medium?  At  what  angle  of  incidence  would 
there  be  no   deflection? 

Experiment  35* 

FOCAL  LENGTH  OF  A  CONVERGING  LENS 

Find  the  focal  length  of  a  converging  lens  either  by  projecting 
an  image  of  the  sun  on  a  paper  screen,  or  by  the  method  of  observ- 
ing the  position  of  the  image  of  a  distant  object  such  as  a  tree  or 
church  spire. 

Experiment  36* 
CONJUGATE  FOCI  OF  A  CONVERGING  LENS 

Project  upon  a  small  screen  in  a  dark  room  images  of  a  bright 
object  placed  at  various  distances  from  the   lens,  and   note  the 


PHYSICS  7J 

several  distances  of  object  and  image  from  the  lens.     See  if  these 

iii 

distances  conform  to  the  law  expressed  in  the  formula 1 =  — 

D0  Di  F. 
What  relation  between  the  distance  of  the  image  from  the  lens 
and  the  size  of  the  image  ?  What  general  relation  between  distance 
of  object  and  distance  of  image  from  the  lens? 

Magnetism  and  electricity 
Experiment  37* 

LINES  OF  FORCE  IN  A  MAGNETIC  FIELD 

By  scattering  fine  iron  filings  over  cardboard  placed  over  mag- 
nets obtain  diagrams  of  the  lines  of  force  (1)  about  a  single  bar 
magnet,  (2)  about  two  like  poles,  (3)  about  two  unlike  poles,  (4) 
about  two  bar  magnets  placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other  thus  T, 
with  a  space  of  2 \  inches  or  3  inches  between  the  magnets. 

What  laws  of  mutual  attraction  and  repulsion  of  poles  seem  to  be 
illustrated  by  the  curves? 

Experiment   38* 
LINES    OF    FORCE    ABOUT    A    CURRENT-BEARING    CONDUCTOR 

Pass  a  stout  copper  wire  vertically  through  the  center  of  a 
horizontal  cardboard.  Send  a  current  from  two  or  three  cells 
through  the  wire,  and  with  a  small  compass  explore  the  magnetic 
field  about  the  wire  and  mark  out  the  lines  of  force.  Sprinkle 
iron  filings  on  the  cardboard  and  draw  the  resulting  curves.  Re- 
peat the  whole  experiment  with  the  current  in  the  wire  reversed. 

State  a  law  of  relation  between  the  direction  of  the  current  and 
the  direction  of  the  lines  of  force  about  the  conductor. 

Experiment  39* 
THE  STUDY  OF  A  SIMPLE  CELL 

Stand  a  strip  of  copper  and  a  strip  of  zinc,  each  with  a  few  inches 
of  copper  wire  attached,  in  the  opposite  sides  of  a  tumbler  two 
thirds  full  of  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Note  what  seems  to 
happen  about  the  strips  both  before  and  after  the  connecting 
wires  are  brought  together.  Repeat  the  experiment  after  amal- 
gamating the  zinc.  Place  the  end  of  one  wire  above  and  the  other 
below  the  tip  of  the  tongue.  Connect  the  wires  with  a  galvan- 
oscope.     Reverse  the  connection  of  the  wires  and  note  the  result. 

What  is  the  effect  of  amalgamating  the  zinc?     What  does  the 


78  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

galvanoscope  show  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  the  direction  of  the 
current  ? 

Experiment  40* 

STUDY  OF  A  TWO  FLUID  CELL 

Construct  a  cell  having  an  amalgamated  zinc  in  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  and  a  strip  of  copper  in  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  using 
a  porous  cup  to  separate  the  liquids.  Weigh  both  strips  of  metal; 
replace  them  in  the  cell;  connect  with  a  galvanometer;  and  take 
readings  at  five  minute  intervals  for  20  minutes.  Weigh  the  strips 
again  and  account  for  changes.  Did  any  gas  rise  from  either  strip 
of  metal?  Why?  What  condition  of  the  current  is  accounted 
for  by   this? 

Experiment  41 

LAWS  OF  ELECTRICAL  RESISTANCE 

Internal 

With  cell  and  galvanometer  connected  as  in  experiment  40,  note 
the  reading  when  the  strips  are  drawn  half  way  out  of  the  liquid, 
when  three  quarters  out,  and  when  thrust  in  at  the  usual  depth. 
Take  readings  when  the  strips  are  as  far  apart  as  possible  and 
again  when  separated  only  by  the  wall  of  the  porous  cup.  What 
is  the  effect  of  the  size  of  the  plate  upon  resistance?  What  is  the 
effect  of  the  distance  between  plates? 

Experiment  42 

LAWS  OF  ELECTRICAL  RESISTANCE 

External 

Connect  a  cell  and  galvanometer  with  two  meters  of  no.  28  or 
no.  30  copper  wire.  Increase  the  length  of  the  copper  wire  grad- 
ually to  4  meters,  and  note  the  effect  upon  the  strength  of  the 
current.  Instead  of  a  single  copper  wire  use  a  double  wire  of  the 
same  size  and  find  what  length  of  the  double  wire  gives  the  same 
resistance  as  the  2  meters  of  single  wire.  What  effect  has  length 
upon  the  resistance  of  a  wire  ?  What  effect  has  area  of  cross-section 
upon  the  resistance  of  a  conductor? 

Experiment  43 

EFFECT  OF  TEMPERATURE  ON  THE  RESISTANCE  OF  A  CONDUCTOR 

Wind  about  50  centimeters  of  fine  iron  wire  in  a  close  spiral  and 
connect  in  circuit  with  a  cell  and  galvanometer.     Note  the  reading 


physics  79 

when  the  wire  is  cold  and  again  when  heated  over  a  gas  flame. 
What  effect  has  a  high  temperature  upon  resistance? 

Experiment  44 

EFFECT  OF  AN  ELECTRIC  CURRENT  ON  THE  TEMPERATURE   OF  A  CON- 
DUCTOR 

Introduce  about  10  centimeters  of  very  fine  (no.  32)  iron  wire 
into  a  circuit  with  two  cells  connected  in  series.  Slowly  move  one 
of  the  line  wires  along  the  iron  wire  so  as  to  diminish  the  length  of 
the  iron  wire  in  circuit.     Note  the  temperature  effect. 

Experiment  45 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  CURRENT  OVER  THE  BRANCHES  OF  A  DIVIDED 

CIRCUIT 

Introduce  a  galvanometer  into  each  of  the  branches  of  a  divided 
circuit.  By  varying  the  lengths  or  cross-sections  of  the  branches 
observe  the  manner  in  which  the  current  seems  to  be  distributed. 

Experiment  46 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  CELLS  TO   PRODUCE  THE  STRONGEST  CURRENT 

Arrange  two  cells  in  series  and  then  parallel  when  the  external 
resistance  is  furnished  by  short  stout  copper  wires  and  five  coils  of 
a  galvanometer.  Repeat  with  the  external  resistance  furnished 
by  long  fine  wires  and  15  coils  of  the  galvanometer.  The  fine  wire 
should  be  of  German  silver.  From  the  galvanometer  readings 
decide  which  arrangement  is  best  for  given  conditions. 

Experiment  47* 

THE  ELECTRO-MAGNET 

Wind  a  rod  of  soft  iron  with  an  insulated  copper  wire  and  connect 
with  a  cell.  Try  the  lifting  power  of  the  rod  on  iron  filings,  tacks 
and  small  nails  when  the  circuit  is  opened  and  closed.  With  a 
compass  determine  the  nature  of  each  pole  of  the  rod.  Reverse 
the  connections  with  the  cell  and  test  the  poles  again.  What  re- 
lation between  the  direction  of  the  current  and  the  nature  of  the 
pole  presented  toward  you?  How  do  the  results  of  this  experi- 
ment agree  with  those  of  experiment  38? 


SO  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Experiment  48* 

THE  ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH 

Connect  a  telegraph  key  and  sounder  (a  simple  homemade 
instrument  is  even  better  than  an  instrument  from  the  shops) 
with  a  cell;  and  by  the  use  of  a  compass  determine  the  condition 
of  the  poles  of  the  magnet  when  the  circuit  is  open  and  when 
closed.  Do  the  results  of  your  observation  agree  with  those  in 
experiment  47? 

Experiment  49* 

THE  ELECTRIC  BELL 

Connect  a  small  electric  bell  with  a  cell  and  by  use  of  a  compass 
determine  the  condition  of  the  poles  of  the  magnet  when  the 
hammer  of  the  bell  is  pressed  and  held  over  toward  the  gong,  and 
when  the  hammer  is  held  away  from  the  gong. 

By  drawing  and  description  show  how  the  hammer  is  kept  in 
motion. 

Experiment  50* 

STUDY  OF  AN  ELECTROMOTOR 

t_  Pass  the  current  from  two  or  three  cells  through  a  simple  motor 
and  with  a  compass  test  the  poles  of  the  field  magnet  and  armature 
while  the  armature  is  held  at  rest  in  several  positions.  With  a 
simple  drawing  and  explanation  show  how  the  current  causes  the 
armature  to  revolve. 

Experiment  51 

EFFECT   PRODUCED   UPON   A   COIL   OF   WIRE   MOVING  THROUGH   A   MAG- 
NETIC  FIELD 

With  long  connecting  wires  join  a  coil  of  10  turns  of  wire,  making 
a  ring  3  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  binding  posts  of  an  astatic 
galvanometer.  Move  the  coil  to  a  position  in  front  of  a  strong 
magnet.  Account  for  the  effect  upon  the  galvanometer.  Draw 
the  coil  suddenly  away  from  the  magnet  and  account  for  the  result 
as  before. 

Experiment  52 

STUDY  OF  A  DYNAMO 

Connect  a  small  dynamo  with  a  galvanometer  of  five  turns  and 
cause  the  armature  to  revolve  with  slowly  increasing  speed.  Ac- 
count for  the  effect  upon  the  galvanometer,  including  constancy 
of  direction.  Repeat  with  a  uniform  moderate  rotation  and 
account  for  the  small  initial  effect  and  its  gradual  building  up  or 
increase. 


PHYSICS  8l 

Experiment  53 
ELECTROPLATING 

Attach  a  large  clean  wire  nail  to  one  terminal  of  a  battery  of 
three  cells  in  series  and  a  strip  of  copper  [see  Experiment  40]  to  the 
other  terminal.  Plunge  both  nail  and  copper  strip  into  a  solution 
of  copper  sulphate  for  a  few  moments  and  note  the  result.  Re- 
verse the  positions  of  nail  and  strip  and  repeat.  Which  arrange- 
ment is  best?  Upon  which  terminal  (anode  or  cathode)  is  metal 
deposited? 

After  the  nail  has  been  well  coated,  let  it  dry  and  then  polish  it 
by  gentle  rubbing  with  a  dusty  blackboard  eraser.  The  copper 
plated  nail  may  be  nickel  plated  by  attaching  it  to  a  suitable  elec- 
trode in  a  solution  of  ammonium -nickel  sulphate. 

Experiment  54 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    AN    ELECTROSTATIC    SERIES 

Rub  a  glass  rod  with  silk  and  present  the  rod  to  the  plate  of  an 
electroscope.  Rub  a  stick  of  sealing  wax  with  flannel  or  catskin 
and  present  the  wax  to  the  plate  of  an  electroscope.  Determine 
with  the  electroscope  the  kind  of  electrification  produced  on  each  of 
six  or  eight  different  insulators,  when  each  is  rubbed  with  the  others, 
and  form  a  series  such  that  each  substance  is  positively  charged 
when  rubbed  with  any  succeeding  substance. 


82  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

CHEMISTRY 

Topical  syllabus  in  chemistry 

The  course  of  instruction  in  chemistry  should  be  based  on  the 
following : 

i  Individual  laboratory  work  consisting  of  exercises  requiring 
30  double  periods  of  work;  at  least  25  of  these  exercises  should  be 
chosen  from  the  appended  list,  all  exercises  marked  with  a  *  to 
be  included. 

2  Instruction  by  lecture  table  demonstrations,  to  be  used  mainly 
as  a  basis  for  questioning  upon  the  general  principles  of  chemistry 
and  their  applications. 

3  The  study  of  at  least  one  standard  textbook,  to  the  end  that  the 
pupil  may  gain  a  comprehensive  and  connected  view  of  the  more 
important  facts  and  laws  of  elementary  chemistry. 

It  is  recommended  that  throughout  the  course  especial  attention 
be  paid  to  the  common  illustrations  of  chemical  laws  and  to  their 
industrial  applications. 

The  general  directions  preceding  the  laboratory  syllabus  in 
physics  excepting  paragraphs  8  and  10  apply  also  to  the  syllabus 
in  chemistry. 

The  certificate  attached  to  the  notebook  in  chemistry  should  be 
expressed   in   the   following   words:     This  notebook  contains  the 

original  record  of  work  done  by 

in  the  laboratory  of  the High  School.     All 

drawings,    descriptions    of    processes,    observed  phenomena  and 
numerical    data  were    recorded    in  the  laboratory  at  the  time  the 
experiments  were  performed. 
Introductory  work 

It  is  recommended  that  the  introductory  work  conform  to  the 
historical  development  of  the  subject,  i.e.  heating  of  metals 
in  air,  with  an  examination  before  and  after  heating.  This 
examination  should  include  weighing  to  show  gain  in  weight, 
and  the  determination  of  the  nature  of  the  substance  taken 
from  the  air. 
Oxygen. 
Element. 

Preparation  by  the  decomposition  of: 
Mercuric  oxid. 
Potassium  chlorate. 
Properties. 


CHEMISTRY  83 

Physical:   color,  odor,  solubility  in  water,  weight  relative  to 

air. 
Chemical:    tendency  to    form    oxids,    terms    oxidation    and 
combustion  explained. 
Necessity  to  life. 
Hydrogen. 
Element. 
Preparation. 

Electrolysis  of  water. 

Action  of  certain  metals  (e.g.  sodium)  on  water. 
Replacement  in  acids  by  metals. 
Properties. 

Physical:  as  with  oxygen. 
Chemical:  burns  in  air. 
Uses. 

Oxy-hydrogen  light  and  blast  lamp. 
Compounds. 
Water. 

Synthesis  by  weight  and  by  volume. 
Law  of  definite  proportions. 
Combining  weights. 
Solution. 

Terms  water  of  crystallization,  efflorescent  substance  and 
deliquescent  substance  defined. 
Hydrogen  peroxid. 
Uses. 

Law   of   multiple  proportions. 
Atomic  hypothesis. 

Development  from  laws  of  definite  and  multiple  proportions. 
Chlorin. 
Element. 
Preparation. 

Electrolysis  of  brine  (demonstration). 

Oxidation  of  hydrochloric  acid  (e.g.  by  manganese  dioxid> 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical:  direct  combination  with  other  elements  to  form 
chlorids;  action  with  water. 
Uses. 

Bleaching  action. 
Compounds. 

Hydrochloric  acid. 


84  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Preparation:  a  chlorid  and  sulphuric  acid. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical:  a  typical  acid,  e.g.  action  on  litmus,   and  on 
metals. 
Uses. 

Digestive;  preparation  of  chlorin. 
Composition  by  volume  (determination  with  sodium  amalgam, 
demonstration) . 
Avogadro's  hypothesis. 

Development  of  reason  for  belief  that  the  hydrogen  molecule  con- 
tains two  atoms. 
Determination  of  the  density  of  gases. 
Calculation  of  molecular  weights  from  density. 
Introduction  of  formulas  and  writing  of  equations  already  studied 

With  emphasis  on  atomic  and  molecular  weight  relations. 
Sodium  (and  potassium) 
Element. 
Preparation. 

Electrolysis  of  fused  sodium  hydroxid. 
Properties. 

Physical:  color,   luster,    hardness,   power  to   conduct   heat 

and  electricity. 
Chemical:  action    with    water    (evaporation    of    solution); 
study  of  hydroxid  as  a  typical  base,  viz,  action  with  lit- 
mus, action  with  acids  (neutralization). 
Solution. 

Electrolytes  (acids,  bases,  salts). 

Nonelectrolytes  (sugar,  alcohol,  glycerin,  distilled  water). 

Ionization  hypothesis. 

Atom  and  ion  distinguished. 
Terms  acid  and  base  defined. 
Neutralization. 
Sodium  and  potassium  compounds. 
Hydroxids. 

Commercial  preparation  and  uses. 
Chlorids. 

Occurrence,  purification  and  uses. 
Carbonates. 
Production. 
Solvay  process. 


(  HEMISTRY  85 

Uses. 

Washing,  cooking. 
Nitrates. 

Occurrence  and  uses. 
Sulphur. 
Element. 
Occurrence. 
Preparation. 
Allotropic  forms. 

Rhombic,  prismatic,  amorphous. 
Crystalline,  form  dependent  upon  temperature. 
Properties. 

Chemical:  direct  combination  with  copper,  zinc,  iron. 
Uses. 

Matches,  vulcanizing,  gunpowder. 
Compounds. 
Occurrence. 
Hydrogen  sulphid. 

Preparation:  ferrous  sulphid  and  dilute  acid. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical:   combustion,    action    on   metals,  formation    of 
sulphids  by  precipitation. 
Sulphur  dioxid  (sulphurous  anhydrid). 

Preparation:  burning    of    sulphur;    reduction    of    sulphuric 

acid;  action  of  an  acid  upon  sulphites. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical:  action  with  water,   reducing  action. 
Uses:  disinfectant,    bleaching,    manufacture    of    sulphuric 
acid. 
Sulphur  trioxid  (sulphuric  anhydrid). 

Preparation:  "contact"  process. 
Sulphuric  acid. 

Preparation:  sulphur  trioxid  with  water  (contact  process). 
Properties. 

Physical:  specific     gravity    and    boiling    point. 
Chemical:  action  on  metals. 
Uses:  dehydrating  agent ;   preparation   of  other  acids   with 
reason  for  same;  illustrations  of  wide  industrial  use. 


86  NEW   YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Nitrogen. 

Element. 
Occurrence. 
Preparation. 
From  air. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical:  relation  to   combustion,   general  inactivity. 
The  atmosphere. 

Proofs  that  air  is  a  mixture :  varying  composition ;  no  energy 
reaction  on    mixing  components;  fractionation  of  liquid 
air. 
Other   constituents:   carbon   dioxid — relation  to  plant  and 
animal  life;  argon  and  helium  as  examples  of  inert  gases; 
aqueous  vapor. 
Compounds. 
Ammonia. 

Occurrence:  decomposition  product. 

Preparation:  by-product  of  gas  works;  action  of  ammonium 

salt  with  strong  base. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical:  basic  character  of  water  solution,    ammonium 
radical. 
Uses:  refrigerating  agent,  deturgent. 
Oxids  briefly  considered. 
Nitric  acid. 

Preparation:  nitrates  with  sulphuric  acid. 
Properties. 

Chemical:  reaction    with    metals,    oxidizing    action. 
Uses:  aqua  regia;  illustration  of  industrial  applications. 
Nitrates. 

Fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  (nitrification). 
Explosives. 
Elements  of  the  nitrogen  group. 
Phosphorus. 
Occurrence. 
Allot ropic  forms. 
Use. 

Matches. 
Arsenic,  antimony  and  bismuth  mentioned. 


CHEMISTRY  87 

Halogen  group. 

Preparation  of  bromin  and  iodin. 
Comparison  of  physical  properties. 
Heats  of  formation  of  compounds,  e.  g.  hydrogen. 
Relative  replacement. 
Carbon. 
Element. 

Distribution  in  nature  and  allotropic  forms. 
Preparation  of  commercial  forms. 

Charcoal,  coke,  boneblack,  lampblack,  gas  carbon. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical:  reducing  action,  formation  of  carbids,  e.  g.  cal- 
cium carbid  and  carborundum ;  relation  to  organic  matter. 
Uses. 

Fuel,  ore  reducer,  absorbent,  decolorizer. 
Compounds. 
Carbon  dioxid. 

Natural  formation  and  occurrence. 
Preparation:  carbonates  with  acids. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical:    nonsupporter    of    combustion,    formation     of 
hard  waters. 
Uses:  mineral  waters,   bread-making,   fire  extinguishers. 
Carbon  monoxid. 

Preparation:  reduction  of  carbon  dioxid  by  carbon. 
Properties:  physical;    chemical — combustibility,    action    on 

red  corpuscles  of  the  blood. 
Use:  water  gas. 
Silicon  dioxid. 
Use. 

Glass,  crown  and  flint. 
Calcium  compounds. 
Calcium  carbonate. 
Occurrence. 

Marble,  limestone,  shells. 
Properties. 

Solubility  in  water  containing  carbon  dioxid. 
Uses. 
Building  materials,  making  of  quicklime,  flux  in  iron  furnaces. 


55  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Calcium  oxid  and  calcium  hydroxid. 
Preparation  and  uses.     - 

Mortar,    its    hardening    compared   with    the    hardening    of 
cement. 
Calcium  sulphate. 

Gypsum  and  plaster  of  paris. 
Calcium  phosphates. 

Use  in  fertilizers. 
Bleaching  powder. 

Uses.  , 

Bleaching,   disinfecting. 
Magnesium. 
Zinc. 
Metal. 

Preparation  of  commercial  forms. 

Ingot,  sheet  mossy. 
Properties. 

Physical ;  as  with  sodium. 
Chemical:  action  with  acids,  corrosion. 
Uses. 

Galvanizing,  batteries,'  brass. 
Compounds. 

Oxid  as  a  paint  base. 
Mercury. 
Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 

Scientific  instruments,  amalgams. 
Compounds. 

Chlorids  (calomel,  and  corrosive  sublimate)- 
Copper. 
Metal. 

Properties.  % 

Uses. 

Conductor,  electroplating,  alloys  (brass,  bronze    aluminum 
bronze). 
Compounds. 

Copper  sulphate. 
Uses. 

Coagulum  and  fungicide. 


CHEMISTRY  89 

Silver. 

Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 

Coin,  jewelry,  mirrors. 
Compounds. 

Uses  in  photography  (developing,  fixing,  toning). 
Gold. 
Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 
Platinum. 
Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses. 
Aluminum. 
Metal. 

Preparation. 

Electrolytic  process. 
Properties. 
Physical. 
':         Chemical:  action  with  hydrochloric  acid  and    with  sodium 
hydroxid. 
Uses. 

Paint,  conductor,  common  utensils,  aluminum  bronze. 
Compounds. 
Oxid. 

Corundum  and  emery. 
Hydroxid. 

Preparation  from  alum. 

Uses:  mordant,  water  purification  (coagulum). 
Iron. 
Metal. 

Metallurgy. 

Blast  furnace  process  (cast  iron). 
Puddling  (wrought  iron). 
Bessemer  process  (Bessemer  iron). 
Open  hearth  process  (steel). 
Comparison  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  and  steel. 

Composition,  fusibility,  malleability  and  tenacity,  magnetic 
permeability,  tempering. 
Common  uses  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  Bessemer  iron  and  steel. 
Protective  coatings  to  prevent  corrosion. 


90  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Compounds. 
Oxids. 

Ferric  oxid  as  paint  base  and  rouge. 
Pyrite. 

Ferrous  and  ferric  chlorids  illustrative  of  change  in   valence 
(oxidation  and  reduction). 
Tin. 
Metal. 

Properties. 
Uses.  # 

Tinned  ware,  solder,  block  tin  pipes. 
Lead. 
Metal. 

Extraction  from  galena  by  roasting. 
Properties. 
Physical. 

Chemical:  corrosion. 
Uses. 

Pipe,  shot,  alloys,  (solder,  type  metal). 
Compounds. 

Red  and  white  lead  as  paint  bases. 
Compounds  of  carbon. 
Sources. 

Destructive  distillation  of  wood. 

Gas,  wood  alcohol,  acetic  acid,  charcoal. 
Destructive   distillation  of  coal. 
Gas,  ammonia,  coal  tar,  coke. 
Distillation  of  petroleum. 

Natural  gas,  gasoline,  kerosene,  paraffin. 
Hydrocarbons. 
Marsh  gas. 

Occurrence:  natural  gas  and  "fire   damp." 
Properties. 
Substitution  products. 

Chloroform  and  iodoform. 
Alcohols. 

Methyl  alcohol. 
Ethyl  alcohol. 

Preparation :  fermentation. 

Uses:  solvent,  in  beverages,  preparation  of  ether. 
Aldehydes. 

Formaldehyde. 

Preparation:  oxidation  of  methyl  alcohol. 


CHEMISTRY  91 

Acids. 
Formic. 

Relation  to  formaldehyde. 
Acetic. 

Preparation  by  fermentation  of  alcohol. 
Ethereal  salts. 
Ethyl  acetate. 
Fats. 

Soap  making  and  glycerin 
Carbohydrates. 
Starch. 
Sugar. 
Cellulose. 

Laboratory  syllabus  in  chemistry 

In  the  following  outline  the  word  exercise  is  used  to  indicate 
work  occupying  a  double  period;  an  experiment  may  occupy  a 
double  period  or  only  part  of  a  double  period.  Detailed  directions 
for  common  experiments  are  omitted  in  most  cases;  the  questions 
indicate  the  lines  of  thought  to  be  developed  from  the  experimental 
work. 

Exercise  /* 
Experiment  1 

HEATING    OF    METALS   IN    AIR 

Examine  a  bright  piece  of  copper,  of  magnesium,  and  of  zinc, 
noting  in  each  case  the  color,  luster  and  tenacity  of  metal.  Hold 
the  piece  of  copper  in  the  outer  flame  of  burner  till  red  hot.  Re- 
move from  flame  and  examine  carefully.  In  what  respects  does 
the  surface  material  differ  from  the  original  copper?  Repeat 
with  magnesium.  Results?  Place  about  half  a  gram  of  zinc 
dust  in  a  layer  on  the  asbestos  square.  Direct  on  it  from  above 
the  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner.     Results? 

Experiment  2 

TO  ?'IOW   CHANGE   IN   WEIGHT  OVER  COUNTERPOISE,  QUALITATIVELY, 
UPON  HEATING  ONE  OF  THE  ABOVE  METALS 

i   Zinc  dust  in  open  crucible. 

2  Magnesium  ribbon  in  ignition  tube. 

3  Fine  copper  wire  or  gauze  in  open  crucible. 

Has  there  oeen  a  loss  or  gam  in  weight?  What  explanation  can 
be  made  for  the  change  in  weight  ? 


92  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Exercise  II* 

Experiment  3 

DECOMPOSITION    OF    A    COMPOUND   FORMED    BY   HEATING   MERCURY   IN 

AIR 

Heat  a  little  of  the  red  powder  in  an  ignition  tube.  What  sub- 
stance collects  on  the  cooler  portion  of  the  tube  a  short  distance 
above  the  powder?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  behavior 
of  a  glowing  splinter  in  air  and  a  glowing  splinter  held  in  the  test 
tube?  What  is  the  state  of  the  substance  that  produces  the  effect? 
Of  what  is  the  red  powder  composed?  Where  did  each  of  these 
substances  come  from  when  the  red  powder  was  made? 

Experiment  4 

DETERMINATION  OF  PERCENTAGE  OF  OXYGEN  IN  AIR  (VOLUMETRIC) 

Volume  of  air  inclosed  by  graduate  clamped  with  mouth  down- 
ward and  under  water;  oxygen  absorbed  by  very  small  piece  of 
phosphorous  supported  on  a  copper  wire.  What  percentage  of 
oxygen  do  you  find  in  the  air? 

Exercise  III* 
Experiment  5 

PREPARATION     OF      OXYGEN    BY    THE    DECOMPOSITION    OF    POTASSIUM 
CHLORATE   MIXED  WITH  MANGANESE  DIOXID 

Heat  a  mixture  of  potassium  chlorate  and  manganese  dioxid 
in  a  test  tube  and  collect  the  resulting  gas  over  water.  Small 
portion  of  gas  tested  with  a  splinter  and  remainder  collected  for 
experiment  6.  Treat  black  residue  with  hot  water,  filter,  and  add 
silver  nitrate  to  filtrate.  Result?  Then  test  solution  of  potassium 
chlorate  with  silver  nitrate.  Examine  residue  on  filter  paper. 
Which  of  the  original  substances  seems  unchanged?  What  proof 
have  you  of  change  in  one  of  them?  Where  do  you  think  the 
oxygen  came  from? 

Experiment  6 

FORMATION  OF  OXIDS 

Burn  carbon,  sulphur,  magnesium,  red  phosphorus  and  iron  in 
oxygen.  In  each  case  note  intensity  of  action,  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  flame,  color  of  flame,  character  of  product  formed,  and 
effect  of  solution  of  product  on  red  and  blue  litmus.  Also  com- 
pare tenacity  of  iron  with  that  of  its  products. 


CHEMISTRY  93 

Exercise   IV* 

Experiment  7 

ELECTROLYSIS  OF  WATER 

Pass  the  current  from  two  or  three  cells  through  acidulated  water 
in  the  usual  apparatus  for  electrolysis.  What  is  the  direction  of  the 
current?  Which  electrode  is  positive?  Which  negative?  Apply 
terms  anode  and  cathods.  What  do3s  the  splinter  test  show  about 
the  gas  that  collects  at  the  anode?  Is  the  same  gas  liberated  at  the 
cathode?  How  does  the  amount  of  gas  liberated  at  the  anode 
compare  with  the  amount  at  the  cathode? 

Experiment  8 

DECOMPOSITION  OF  WATER  BY  SODIUM 

Fold  a  piece  of  sodium  as  large  as  an  apple  seed  in  dry  filter  paper 
and  thrust  quickly  upward  into  a  test  tube  of  water  inverted  in 
water.  A  pair  of  iron  forceps  should  be  used  to  handle  the  paper 
and  sodium.  What  gas  collects  in  the  test  tube?  Where  does  this 
gas  come  from? 

Exercise  V* 

Experiment  9 

PREPARATION    OF    HYDROGEN    BY     REPLACEMENT    IN    AN    ACID    BY    A 

METAL 

Zinc  or  iron  with  hydrochloric  acid  or  sulphuric  acid 
What  advantage  has  this  method  over  the  previous  method  for 
preparing   hydrogen?      From   what   material   does    the    hydrogen 
probably   com2?      Is  thsre  anything  dissolved  in  the  liquid,  and, 
if  so,  what  does  it  probably   contain? 

Experiment  10 

PROPERTIES    OF    HYDROGEN 

How  do  you  determine  the  relative  weight  of  hydrogen  and  air? 
Does  it  burn?  Does  it  support  combustion?  Why  must  the  joints 
of  the  apparatus  be  tight?  Why  do  you  discard  the  first  portion 
of  the  gas  collected?  What  is  the  effect  of  passing  hydrogen  over 
heated  copper  oxid?  What  becomes  of  the  oxygen?  A  material 
which  acts  towards  an  oxid  in  this  way  is  called  a  reducing  agent. 


94  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Exercise  VI 
Experiment  n 

EQUIVALENT    OF    SODIUM,    MAGNESIUM  OR  ZINC 

What  weight  of  the  metal  is  required  to  liberate  i  gram  of  hydro- 
gen ?     What  name  is  given  to  this  weight  ? 

Exercise   VII* 
Experiment  12 

PREPARATION  OF  CHLORIN  BY  OXIDATION  OF   HYDROCHLORIC   ACID 

Heat  hydrochloric  acid  and  manganese  dioxid  in  a  flask.  From 
which  of  the  original  materials  is  the  chlorin  derived?  With  what 
does  the  oxygen  of  the  manganese  dixoid  combine  ? 

Experiment  13 

PROPERTIES    OF    CHLORIN 

Into  jars  of  chlorin  gas  plunge  a  lighted  taper,  and  wet  and  dry 
colored  cloths.  Why  do  you  not  collect  chlorin  as  you  did 
hydrogen?  Does  chlorin  support  combustion?  The  taper  is  com- 
posed of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  what  is  the  evidence  that  one  of  these 
elements  is  liberated  ?  Which  one  combines  with  the  chlorin  ?  Sum 
up  your  evidence  as  to  the  tendency  of  chlorin  to  combine  with 
hydrogen.  Explain  the  difference  in  behavior  of  chlorin  toward 
the  wet  and  dry  cloths.  What  is  your  conclusion  as  to  the  activity 
of  chlorin  ? 

Exercise  VIII* 

Experiment  14 

PREPARATION  OF  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  WITH  SODIUM  CHLORID  AND 

SULPHURIC  ACID 

Heat  common  salt  and  sulphuric  acid  in  a  flask.  Collect  the 
resulting  gas  by  dry  displacement. 

Of  what  elements  is  hydrochloric  acid  composed?  Where  does 
the  hydrogen  come  from?  The  chlorin?  Why  was  sulphuric  acid 
selected?     (Class  discussion) 

Experiment  15 
PROPERTIES    OF    HYDROCHLORIC    ACID 

How  do  you  determine  the  relative  weight  of  hydrochloric  acid 
and  air?  Explain  why  the  gas  is  not  collected  over  water.  Hydro- 
chloric acid  is  a  typical  acid.  What  properties,  then,  characterize 
acids?  How  can  silver  nitrate  be  used  as  a  test  for  hydrochloric 
acid  and  other  soluble  chlorids? 


CHEMISTRY  95 

Exercise  IX 
Experiment  16 

DETERMINATION  OF  WEIGHT  OF  A  LITER  OF  OXYGEN 

Heat  about  9  grams  of  dry  potassium  chlorate  and  6  grams 
thoroughly  dryed  manganese  dioxid  in  a  dry  test  tube,  with  a 
loose  plug  of  glass  wool  or  dry  asbestos  wool  above  the  powder. 
The  gas  is  to  be  collected  in  a  bottle  of  about  2  liters  capacity. 
Weigh  to  a  centigram  the  test  tube,  containing  the  mixture,  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  delivery  tube  before  (and  after)  the  heating. 
Measure  volume  of  gas  evolved.  From  this  volume  and  its  observed 
temperature  and  barometric  pressure  corrected  for  water  vapor 
tension  calculate  the  volume  at  o°  and  760  millimeters.  Using 
the  weight  of  oxygen  as  found,  calculate  the  weight  of  a  liter  under 
standard  conditions. 

Exercise  X* 

Experiment  17 

ACTION  OF   SODIUM  WITH  WATER 

Put  a  piece  of  sodium  not  larger  than  an  apple  seed  into  a  few 
drops  of  water  in  a  crucible.  Note  action  on  water  and  effect  of 
tilusoon  on  litmus.     Evaporate  solution  to  dryness. 

How  does  sodium  behave  when  placed  on  water?  What  gas  is 
liberated?  Sodium  hydroxid  is  a  typical  base.  What  are  the 
characteristics  of  a  typical  base? 

Experiment  18 

SODIUM  HYDROXID  AS  A  TYPICAL  BASE 

Action  on  litmus,  neutralization  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
crystallization  of  product. 

What  is  the  evidence  that  the  characteristic  properties  of  the 
acid  and  of  the  base  have  been  destroyed?  Is  there  any  evidence 
of  chemical  change?  Base  your  answer  on  temperature  effect, 
crystalline  form  and  taste  of  product. 

Exercise  XI 
Experiment  19 

DETERMINATION    OF    THE    CONCENTRATION    OF    AN    ACID    AND    OF    AN 
ALKALINE  SOLUTION    BY    TITRATION 

A  normal  solution  of  an  acid  contains  1  gram  of  replaceable 
hydrogen  per  liter.  A  normal  solution  of  an  alkali  contains  17 
grams  of  replaceable  hydroxyl  per  liter. 


g6  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Problem.  10  c.cm  of  a  half  normal  solution  of  hydrochloric 
acid  exactly  neutralize  5  c.cm  of  a  solution  of  sodium  hydroxid. 
How  many  grams  of  sodium  hydroxid  in  a  liter  of  the  solution? 

Exercise  XII* 
Experiment  20 

FLAME    TESTS 

Test  nitrates  of  lithium,  sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  strontium 
and  barium.  Use  cobalt  glass  with  mixtures  of  sodium  and  potassium 
salts.  What  is  the  greatest  difference  in  the  flames  ?  To  what  part  of 
the  salt  must  this  be  due  ?  Why  ?  What  use  might  be  made  of  these 
flames  in  analytical  work?  What  effect  does  the  cobalt  glass  have 
upon  the  color  of  the  flame  given  by  the  sodium  nitrate  solution? 
Why?  To  what  extent  is  the  potassium  flame  effected  by  the 
cobalt  glass?  Which  flame  do  you  see  when  you  take  a  mixed 
solution  of  sodium  and  potassium  nitrate  ?  Why  can  you  not  make 
the  uot  other  one  with  the  naked  eye?  When  you  use  the  cobalt 
glass,  which  flame  of  the  mixed  solution  can  be  recognized?  Ex- 
plain the  use  of  the  cobalt  glass  in  making  flame  tests  of  mixtures 
of  sodium  and  potassium  salts. 

Exercise  XIII* 
Experiment  21 

SOLVAY  PROCESS 

Preparation  of  sodium  bicarbonate  by  the  action  of  carbon  di- 
oxid  upon  saturated  ammoniacal  brine.  Dissolve  10  grams  am- 
monium carbonate  in  100  cubic  centimeters  ammonium  hydroxid. 
Saturate  this  solution  with  sodium  chlorid  by  shaking  with  fine 
salt.  Pour  off  the  clear  liquid  and  through  it  pass  carbon  dioxid 
to  saturation.     Filter  off  deposit,   dry  between  filter  paper  and 

examine. 

Exercise  XIV 

Experiment  22 

DETERMINATION    OF   WEIGHT   OF   WATER   OF    CRYSTALLIZATION 

Heat  a  known  weight  of  crystals  of  barium  chlorid  to  a  constant 
weight  in  an  open  crucible,  and  weigh  the  residue.  Calculate  the 
per  cent  of  water  in  barium  chlorid  and  then  the  total  number  of 
molecules  of  water  of  crystallization  per  molecule  of  barium  chlorid. 


CHEMISTRY  97 

Exercise  XV* 
Experiment  23 

STUDY  OF  SULPHUR 

Slowly  heat  roll  brimstone  in  a  beaker  till  it  fuses  and  boils. 
Pour  a  part  into  cold  water  and  let  the  rest  cool  till  crusted  over. 
Then  break  the  crust  and  pour  out  the  melted  sulphur  beneath  it. 
Study  changes  of  sulphur  while  being  heated  to  the  boiling  point. 
Preparation  of  allotropic  forms,  rhomb1:,  prismatic,  and  amor- 
phous. Upon  what  does  the  form  that  sulphur  assumes  depend? 
What  is  the  stable  form  at  ordinary  temperature? 

Exercise  XVI* 
Experiment  24 

PREPARATION  OF  METALLIC  SULPHIDS 
Dry  method 
Heat  a  mixture  of  iron  filings  and  sulphur  in  a  test  tube.     What 
is  the  analogy  between  the  formation  of  sulphids  and  oxids? 

Experiment  25 

PREPARATION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  HYDROGEN  SULPHID 

Treat  a  portion  of  compound  formed  in  preceding  experiment 
with  an  acid.  Plunge  a  lighted  splinter  into  a  tumbler  of  the  gas 
formed.  What  products  are  formed  when  we  burn  hydrogen 
sulphid  and  how  do  you  recognize  them?  What  does  this  show 
about  the  composition  of  hydrogen  sulphid? 

Exercise  XVII* 
Experiment  26 
PREPARATION  OF  SULPHUR  DIOXID 

Pour  sulphuric  acid  upon  copper  turnings  in  a  flask  and  collect 
gas  by  dry  displacement.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  acts  as  an 
oxidizing  agent.  What  is  the  usual  action  of  a  metal  on  an  acid? 
Why  do  we  not  get  this  gas  here?  What  becomes  of  it?  How, 
then,  do  you  account  for  the  formation  of  sulphur  dioxid?  Com- 
plete the  equation  Cu  +  2H2  S04  =  CuS04  + + 

Experiment  27 
PROPERTIES  OF  SULPHUR  DIOXID 

Physical,  odor,  solubility;  chemical,  acid  character  of  solution, 
bleaching  action,  reducing  power.  Is  the  water  solution  of  sulphur 
dioxid  acid  or  basic?     Does  dry  sulphur  dioxid  give  the  same  re- 


98  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

action?  A  chemical  compound  that  combines  with  water  to  form 
an   acid  is  an  acid   anhydrid.     Is  sulphur  dioxid  such  a  substance? 

Complete  the  following  equation:  H  O  +  S02  = 

How  does  the  formula  of  the  product  differ  from  that  of  sulphuric 
acid?  What  is  the  name  of  the  process  by  which  this  compound 
could  be  converted  into  sulphuric  acid?  The  test  for  sulphuric 
acid  (or  other  soluble  sulphate)  is  the  formation  of  a  white  precipi- 
tate with  barium  chlorid  and  which  is  insoluble  in  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  sulphurous  acid  on  a  dilute 
solution  of  potassium  permanganate?  Has  the  sulphurous  acid 
undergone  the  change  referred  to  above?  What  terms  can  be  ap- 
plied respectively  to  the  sulphurous  acid  and  the  potassium  per- 
manganate ? 

Exercise  XVII)  * 

Experiment  28 

PREPARATION  OF  AMMONIA 

Mix  lime  and  ammonium  chlorid  with  water  in  a  flask.  Com- 
plete the  equation  Ca(0H)2  +  2NH4  CI  = +  Ca  Cl2 

= + +  CaCl2 

Why  is  calcium  hydroxid  used?  (Think  why  sulphuric  acid  was 
used  in  the  preparation  of  hydrochloric  acid.) 

Experiment  29 

PROPERTIES  OF  AMMONIA 

Invert  a  flask  of  ammonia  gas  over  water.  Physical,  solubility; 
chemical,  basic  character  of  water  solution. 

Exercise  XIX* 
Experiment  30 

PREPARATION  OF  AND  TEST  FOR  NITRIC  ACID 

Heat  potassium  nitrate  and  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  in  a 
retort.  Collect  the  distillate.  Why  do  we  use  sulphuric  acid  in 
this  preparation?     Why  not  use  hydrochloric  acid? 

Exercise  XX 
Experiment  31 

PREPARATION  OF  NITRIC  OXID 

Heat  strong  nitric  acid  and  copper  in  a  generating  flask.  What 
is  the  usual  reaction  of  a  metal  on  an  acid?  Why  do  we  not  get 
this  gas  here?  What  becomes  ol  it?  How,  then,  do  you  account 
for   the   formation   of   nitric   oxid? 

Complete   equation    3Cu  +  8  HN03  =  3CU  (N03  )2  +    

+ 


CHEMISTRY  99 

Experiment  32 
PROPERTIES  OF  NITRIC  OXID 

Invert  a  test  tube  of  nitric  oxid  over  water.  By  pouring  upward 
from  another  test  tube  introduce  air  or  oxygen.  What  are  the 
evidences  of  chemical  change  when  nitric  oxid  comes  in  contact 
with  air?     What  change  has  occurred? 

Exercise  XXI* 
Experiment  33 

STUDY  OF  BROMIN 

Gently  heat  a  mixture  of  potassium  bromid,  manganese  dioxid 
and  sulphuric  acid  in  a  test  tube.  Preparation ;  solubility  in  water, 
carbon  disulphid,  or  chloroform;  replacement  by  chlorin.  What 
compounds  would  we  expect  to  have  formed  by  the  addition  of 
sulphuric  acid  to  potassium  bromid?  How  is  the  action  modified 
by  the  presence  of  manganese  dioxid?  Why?  Is  bromin  more 
soluble  in  water  than  in  carbon  disulphid?  What  characteristic 
color  does  bromin  give  to  carbon  disulphid?  Why  does  not  po- 
tassium bromid  solution  impart  this  color  to  the  disulphid?  Why 
does  the  coloration  appear  after  the  chlorin  is  added  to  the  potas- 
sium bromid  solution?  State  the  relation  between  the  heats  of 
formation  of  potassium  bromid  and  potassium  chlorid  to  the  action 
which  has  occurred.      (Class  discussion, 

Experiment  34 

ACTION    OF    SULPHURIC    ACID    ON    POTASSIUM    BROMID 

Explain  the  use  of  the  materials  selected  for  this  preparation 
What  chemical  reaction  would  you  expect?     How  do  you  account 
for  the  production  of  bromin?     Account  for  the  formation  of  sul- 
phur dioxid  (compare  with  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  copper)  • 

Exercise  XXII* 
Experiment  35 

STUDY    OF    IODIN 

Heat  a  mixture  of  potassium  iodid,  manganese  dioxid  and 
sulphuric  acid  in  a  test  tube.  Preparation;  solubility  in  water, 
alcohol,  potassium  iodid  solution,  carbon  disulphid  or  chloro- 
form; replacement  by  bromin  and  chlorin;  starch  test.  Ex- 
plain the  use  of  the  materials  *as  in  the  preparation  of  bromin - 
Determine  relative  solubility  of  iodin  in  water  and  in  carbon  disul- 
phid, and  the  characteristic  coloration  in  carbon  disulphid.     De- 


IOO  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

termine,  by  method  used  in  previous  exercise,  the  relative  replace- 
ment of  chlorin  and  iodin,  and  of  iodin  and  bromin.  Arrange  these 
halogen  elements  in  the  order  of  their  relative  replacement,  and 
state  the  relation  of  the  replacements  to  the  heats  of  formation  of 
their  potassium  compounds. 

Experiment  36 

ACTION    OF    SULPHURIC     ACID   ON    POTASSIUM   IODID 

What  chemical  reaction  would  you  expect  ?  How  do  you  account 
for  the  production  of  iodin  ?  Account  for  the  formation  of  the 
hydrogen  sulphid?  Compare  with  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on 
potassium  bromid.  Which  of  the  three  halogen  acids  is  the  most 
stable?  Which  has  the  greatest  heat  of  formation?  Which  is  the 
most  easily  oxidized  (i.e.  the  best  reducer)  by  sulphuric  acid?  Give 
your  reasons. 

Exercise  XXIII* 
Experiment  37 

PREPARATION    OF    CARBON    DIOXID 

Complete   the   equation:    Ca  C03  +  H  CI •  = +CaCl2 

=  ...+  ... +CaCl2 
Why  can  any  of  the  common  acids  be  used  in  preparing  carbon 
dioxid  ? 

Experiment  38 

PROPERTIES   OF   CARBON   DIOXID 

Physical;  chemical,  nonsupporter  of  combustion,  acid  character 
of  water  solution,  reaction  with  limewater  (temporary  hardness). 
Is  carbon  dioxid  an  anhydrid?  Why?  What  is  the  first  effect  of 
carbon  dioxid  on  limewater?  Write  equation.  What  further 
effect  occurs  on  continued  passing  of  the  gas?  How  does  the 
resulting  liquid  differ  from  distilled  water  in  its  effect  on  a  soap 
solution?  Under  what  conditions  is  calcium  carbonate  soluble  in 
water?  Why  is  such  a  water  called  "hard"?  Can  such  a  hard 
water  be  softened  by  boiling?  What  became  of  the  calcium  car- 
bonate?    Devise  a  test  for  a  carbonate? 

Exercise  XXIV 

Experiment  39 

FOUR  WAYS   OF  PREPARING  SALTS 

Direct  combination,  neutralization,  displacement  due  to  vola- 
tility, displacement  to  insolubility.  Students  are  to  devise  methods 
from  principles  already  taught. 


CHEMISTRY  IOI 

Exercise  XXV 
Experiment  40 

ACTION    OF   COBALT   NITRATE    ON    IGNITED    OXIDS    OF    ALUMINUM, 
ZINC    AND    MAGNESIUM 

Experiment  41 

IDENTIFICATION    OF    SIMPLE    SALTS,    TREATED    AS    UNKNOWNS,    CON- 
TAINING ABOVE   METALS 

Exercise  XXVI 
Experiment  42 

BORAX    BEAD    TESTS   FOR  COBALT,   MANGANESE,    CROMIUM,    IRON    AND 

NICKEL 

Experiment  43 

ACTION  OF  METALS   ON   SALT  SOLUTIONS 

Zinc  on  solutions  of  lead,  silver,  mercury,  and  copper;  copper  on 
solutions  of  lead,  silver,  mercury,  and  zinc.  In  each  case  name  the 
material  deposited.  What  part  does  the  metal  added  play?  In 
what  previous  experiments  have  similar  actions  occurred? 

Exercise  XXVII* 
Experiment  44 

CHEMICAL  EQUIVALENT  BY   DISPLACEMENT 

Quantitative  displacement  of  one  of  the  metals  in  exercise  XXVI. 
Weigh  a  small  rod  of  pure  zinc  and  place  in  a  solution  of  copper 
sulphate.  Collect  the  deposited  metal  on  a  filter,  wash  with  alcohol, 
and  weigh  when  dry.  Reweigh  zinc  rod.  Given  the  equivalent  of 
zinc,  calculate  the  equivalent  of  copper.  Copper  and  silver  nitrate 
might  also  be  used  to  advantage. 

Exercise  XXVIII* 
Experiment  45 

MORDANTS   AND  DYEING 

To  a  solution  of  alum  add  ammonium  hydroxid  to  precipitation. 
Write  equation.  Does  ammonium  hydroxid  precipitate  litmus  from 
solution?  Add  litmus  solution  to  the  solution  containing  the  pre- 
cipitated aluminum  hydroxid.  Shake  and  allow  to  settle.  What 
is  the  color  of  the  supernatant  liquid  ?  What  becomes  of  the  litmus  ? 
Such  a  combination   is   called  a  lake.     (One  or  two  other   lakes 


102  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

should  be  made  using  logwood,  cochineal,  carmine  etc.)  Mordant  a 
piece  of  cotton  by  soaking  in  alum  solution  wringing,  then  dip- 
ping in  ammonium  hydroxid  solution.  Wring.  Where  is  the 
precipitate  of  ammonium  hydroxid?  Boil  cloth  in  litmus  solu- 
tion. Boil  a  piece  of  unmordanted  cloth  in  a  solution  of  lit- 
mus. Wring  and  thoroughly  wash  both  pieces  of  cloth.  What 
is  the  use  of  a  mordant  ?  This  exercise  can  be  extended  to  illustrate 
the  use  of  other  mordants. 

Exercise  XXIX 
Experiment  46 

REDUCTION   OF  FERRIC  TO   FERROUS   CHLORID 

To  a  solution  of  ferrous  sulphate  add  a  solution  of  potassium 
ferricyanid.  Result?  This  is  a  test  for  a  ferrous  salt.  To  a 
solution  of  ferric  chlorid  add  potassium  ferrocyanid.  Result? 
This  is  a  test  for  a  ferric  salt.  To  a  ferric  chloride  solution  add 
hydrochloric  acid  and  iron  (card  teeth  of  fine  iron  wire).  Boil. 
Test  small  portions  until  the  solution  fails  to  give  the  test  for  ferric 
iron.  What  iron  salt  is  there  now  in  the  solution?  Complete  the 
equation  FeCl3  +  H  (nascent)  ===    ? 

Write  another  equation  to  account  for  the  hydrogen. 

Experiment  47 
OXIDATION  OF  FERROUS  TO  FERRIC  CHLORID 

To  a  ferrous  chlorid  solution  add  hydrochloric  acid  and  a  strong 
oxidizing  agent,  preferably  hydrogen  peroxid  or  nitric  acid.  Apply 
the  two  tests  for  iron  salts.    What  kind  of  iron  is  now  in  solution  ? 

Complete  equation  Fe  Cl2  -f H  CI  -+-  O  == + 

[oxidizing  agent] 
Such  a  change  in  valence  as  illustrated  in  experiment  45  is  termed 
reduction;  that  in  experiment  46  is  termed  oxidation.     Why? 

Exercise  XXX* 

Experiment  48 

SILVER  SALTS  IN  PHOTOGRAPHY 

Prepare  silver  bromid. 

1  Show  that  light  is  capable  of  initiating  the  reduction  of  silver 
bromid  by  treating  exposed  and  unexposed  portions  of  the  salt 
with  a  developer.  A  developer  is  a  reducing  agent  capable  of  con- 
tinuing but  not  initiating  the  reduction  of  a  silver  halide. 


CHEMISTRY  IO3 

2  Add  "hypo"  to  (i)  freshly  prepared  and  unexposed  silver 
bromid;  (2)  silver  bromid  unexposed  but  mixed  with  developer; 
(3)  exposed  and  developed  silver  bromid.  Results?  "Hypo" 
is  the  last  solution  used  in  preparing  a  negative.  Why  is  it  called 
the  "fixer?" 

or 

Experiment  49 
CYANOTYPE  OR  " BLUE   PRINT"   PROCESS 

Coat  well  sized  paper  with  ferric  chlorid.  Place  some  opaque 
object  or  design  on  the  paper  and  expose  to  the  sunlight.  Then 
float  paper  on  potassium  ferricyanid  solution.  Remove  and  wash 
thoroughly.  Where  is  the  deepest  color  developed?  Which  set 
of  iron  salts  gives  this  color  with  potassium  ferricyanid?  What 
has  happened  to  the  ferric  chlorid,  and  what  was  the  cause  of  the 
change?     (The  "sizing"  in  the  paper  takes  part  in  the  reaction.) 

Exercise  XXXI* 

Experiment  50 

FERMENTATION 

Fermentation  of  sugar;  distillation  of  product;  iodoform  test 
for  alcohol.  What  is  the  gas  liberated  during  the  fermentation? 
What  other  compound  is  formed?  The  boiling  point  of  alcohol 
is  7 8°.  How  do  you  explain  the  elevation  of  boiling  point  during 
distillation?  (Continue  distillation  until  one  fourth  of  liquid  has 
passed  over.)  Add  lime  to  distillate  and  redistill  noticing  tem- 
perature. Why  is  the  lime  used?  Identify  second  distillate  by 
applying  a  match  to  a  very  small  portion  in  watch  glass,  and  by 
applying  iodoform  test  with  another  portion. 

Exercise  XXXII 

Experiment  5 1 

QUALITATIVE   SEPARATION   OF    LEAD,    MERCURY    ("  OUS")    AND   SILVER 

Exercise  XXXIII 

Experiment  52 

PREPARATION  OF  AN  ETHEREAL  SALT 

Ethereal  salts  or  esters.  Dissolve  about  a  gram  of  sodium  ace- 
tate in  a  very  little  water  and  then  add  a  few  drops  of  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid.  What  acid  would  be  made  by  this  combination? 
To  the  test  tube  now  add  a  few  drops  of  alcohol.     Warm  and 


104  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

notice  the  odor  of  the  ethyl  acetate.  Write  equation  to  show  its 
formation,  viz,  C2  H5  OH  (alcohol)  +  (acetic  acid)  —  (ethyl  ace- 
tate) + 

Experiment  53 

SOAP-MAKING 

Place  in  a  porcelain  dish  a  piece  of  fat  the  size  of  a  marble  and 
add  4  cubic  centimeters  of  alcohol  and  10  drops  of  a  50%  solution 
of  sodium  hydroxid.  Heat  very  gently  stirring  constantly.  Con- 
tinue boiling  until  the  odor  of  alcohol  is  no  longer  perceptible. 
The  alcohol  is  used  as  a  common  solvent  for  the  fat  and  the  alkali. 

The  tallow  is  mainly  glyceryl  stearate  C3  Hs  (CX8  H3S  02  )3, 
stearic  acid  is  H(Cl8  H3S  02 ).  Write  the  equation  when  the  glyceryl 
stearate  reacts  with  the  sodium  hydroxid  to  form  sodium  stearate 
or  soap.     This  is  the  residue  left  in  the  dish. 


GROUP  3  (continued) 
BIOLOGIC  SCIENCE1 
Biology  Physiology  and  hygiene 

Elementary  botany  Advanced  botany 

Elementary  zoology  Advanced  zoology 

BIOLOGY 

For  all  high  schools  that  have  adequate  laboratory  equipment  and 
teachers  of  the  requisite  scientific  training,  a  first  year  course  in 
biology  consisting  of  some  study  of  botany,  zoology,  and  human 
physiology,  is  recommended.  Some  of  the  reasons  for  such  a  course 
are  as  follows: 

i  The  natural  interests  of  students  on  entering  the  high  school 
are  extensive  rather  than  intensive.  Hence,  a  course  in  science 
dealing  with  a  wide  range  of  facts  appeals  to  boys  and  girls  more 
strongly  than  does  a  more  thorough  consideration  of  a  smaller 
number   of   topics. 

2  It  is  advantageous  for  students  to  study  both  animals  and 
plants,  because  in  this  way  only  can  the  essential  processes  that 
underlie  the  phenomena  of  life  be  emphasized. 

3  A  minimum  of  30  lessons  in  human  physiology  is  required  by 
law  for  the  first  year.  If  the  study  of  the  human  body  is  pursued 
in  connection  with  elementary  botany  and  zoology,  it  will  be 
possible  to  treat  in  a  comparative  way  processes  that  relate  to  all 
living  organisms. 

High  schools  that  are  not  prepared  to  teach  such  a  course  in 
biology  may  conduct  a  half  year  course  in  either  botany  or  zoology 
and  a  half  year  course  in  human  physiology. 

The  first  year  courses  in  biology  are  designed  to  give  students  a 
general  conception  of  the  wide  range  of  forms  in  plant  and  animal 
life;  to  lead  them  to  observe  the  various  processes  carried  on  by 
plants  and  animals,  and  to  study  only  so  much  of  structure  as  is 
necessary  for  a  clear  comprehension  of  these  processes ;  and  to  help 
them  understand  the  general  structure  of  the  human  body  and  the 
way  to  care  for  it. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  in  190  lessons  to  consider  with  any 
degree  of  thoroughness  the  subjects  of  botany,  zoology,  and  human 
physiology.  Hence,  an  advanced  course  in  either  botany  or  zoology 
is  offered  to  students  who  are  especially  interested  in  biological 
science,  or  who  are  preparing  to  teach  nature  study  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools,  or  who  wish  to  present  one  of  these  subjects  as  an 

'The  syllabus  in  biology  was  prepared  at  the  request  of  the  Education  Department  by  a 
committee  selected  from  the  teachers  of  biology  in  New  York  city. 


106  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

admission  requirement  for  college  or  as  a  preparation  for  the  medi- 
cal school.  Unless  the  student  has  one  of  these  ends  in  view,  he 
ought  to  broaden  his  training  by  choosing  some  other  science  for 
the  later  years  of  the  course. 

General  suggestions  relating  to  first  year  courses 

The  study  of  botany  should  precede  that  of  zoology  and  human 
physiology  because  material  for  plant  study  can  be  readily  obtained 
at  all  times  of  the  year ;  because  there  is  often  less  objection  on  the 
part  of  students  when  the  beginning  is  made  with  plants;  and 
because  human  physiology  treats  of  the  most  specialized  type  of 
life,  and  should,  therefore,  be  considered  last  in  the  course. 

The  physiology  of  plants,  animals  and  man  can  be  made  more 
intelligible  by  a  consideration  of  the  simple  principles  of  physics 
and  chemistry.  Experiments  should,  therefore,  be  performed  with 
a  few  of  the  common  elements  and  compounds.  These  experiments 
may  come  either  as  an  introduction  to  the  subject  of  botany  or 
physiology,  or  in  connection  with  the  various  topics  to  which  they 
are  most  closely  related. 

The  individual  student  should,  of  course,  be  supplied  with  a 
specimen  of  each  of  the  forms  studied.  It  is  essential,  therefore, 
that  teachers  of  biology  be  furnished  with  a  certain  amount  of 
perishable  material  for  botany,  zoology,  and  huma'n  physiology. 

So  far  as  possible  the  experiments  in  biology  should  be  performed 
by  the  individual  student.  Demonstrations  of  more  difficult 
experiments  should  be  made  by  the  teacher.  If  the  pieces  of 
apparatus  and  the  dissected  specimens  used  for  demonstrations  are 
carefully  preserved  from  year  to  year,  each  school  will  in  time  have  a 
valuable  permanent  equipment  of  this  sort. 

Field  work  in  biology  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of  arousing 
interest  in  the  subject.  This  may  be  conducted  by  the  teacher 
with  groups  of  students  in  the  woods,  fields,  and  parks;  or  work 
may  be  carried  on  by  the  individual  student,  and  reported  to  the 
teacher  for  suggestion  and  assistance. 

Too  much  emphasis  can  not  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  actual 
study  of  specimens.  Textbook  study  alone  of  plants  and  animals 
means  the  waste  of  time  and  energy  of  student  and  teacher  alike. 
Textbooks  should  be  used,  however,  to  "supplement  the  laboratory 
and  field  work.  Oral  recitation  is  also  necessary,  for  by  this  means 
attention  is  called  to  important  facts,  and  the  student  is  led  to  see 
things  in  their  proper  relations. 


BIOLOGY  I07 

Conditions  for  favorable  study  of  the  topics  suggested  below  vary 
widely  in  different  parts  of  the  State.  Each  teacher  should,  there- 
fore, select  those  topics  that  can  be  studied  to  best  advantage.  The 
order  in  which  the  various  subjects  may  be  considered  is  of  less 
importance,  too,  than  is  the  presentation  of  each  at  a  time  when 
satisfactory  material  can  be  obtained. 

Notebooks  and  examinations.  A  carefully  prepared  notebook 
is  an  indispensable  part  of  good  laboratory  work  in  biology.  This 
laboratory  notebook  should  contain  drawings  and  descriptions  of  the 
animals  and  plants  studied  by  the  student,  together  with  an  account 
of  the  experiments  he  has  performed  or  observed.  Outline  drawings 
with  a  hard  lead  pencil  are  recommended,  and  each  part  should  be 
carefully  labeled.  In  describing  experiments,  students  should  be 
careful  to  distinguish  between  observed  results  and  conclusions.  If 
the  work  is  recorded  on  separate  sheets  of  paper,  these  can  be 
arranged  in  logical  order  and  bound  at  the  end  of  the  course.  The 
work  in  biology  furnishes  admirable  material  for  expression  by 
means  of  drawings  and  written  composition.  Hence,  the  laboratory 
notebook  should  be  carefully  inspected  from  time  to  time  by  the 
teacher  to  see  that  it  contains  accurate  descriptions  and  drawings 
carefully  labeled. 

The  student  should  also  prepare  an  index  stating  the  drawings 
made,  the  experiments  performed  and  the  descriptions  written  in 
his  laboratory  notebook.  After  each  title  in  this  index  he  should 
place  some  mark  to  indicate  whether  the  work  has  been  done  in  the 
laboratory  or  outside  the  laboratory.  This  list  must  not  include 
any  copied  drawings,  dictations  or  abstracts. 

A  student  taking  the  Department's  examinations  must  prepare  a 
copy  of  the  index  of  his  notebook  and  attach  it  to  his  answer  paper 
at  the  time  of  the  examination.  This  copy  of  the  index  must  bear 
(1)  the  teacher's  indorsement  certifying  that  it  is  a  true  abstract  of 
the  student's  work,  and  (2)  the  teacher's  rating  of  the  notebook 
based  upon  a  scale  of  20.  Notebooks  must  be  accessible  to  the  in- 
spectors and  be  subject  to  the  call  of  the  Department  for  a  period 
of  six  months  subsequent  to  the  completion  of  the  course. 

For  students  who  wish  to  take  the  examinations  set  by  the  De- 
partment four  different  questions  papers  in  biologic  subjects  will  bo 
prepared,    as   follows: 

1  A  paper  for  students  who  have  taken  the  first  year  course  in 
biology  (botany,  zoology,  and  human  physiology).  Students  taking 
this  course  in  first  year  biology  should  be  prepared  on  the  topics 
marked  with  a  *  in  botany  under  B  (Seeds  and  seedlings),  D (Stems) 


Io8  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

F  (Leaves),  G  (Flowers),  together  with  the  *  topics  under  any  four 
of  the  other  six  main  subdivisions:^  (Introductory  experiments  in 
chemistry  and  physics),  C  (Roots),  E  (Buds),  H  (Fruits),  /  (Algae 
and  fungi),  J  (Mosses  and  ferns) ;  on  the  topics  marked  with  a  *  in 
zoology  under  A  (Protozoa),  F  (Crustacea),  (7(Insecta),  J  (Amphibia), 
together  with  the  *  topics  under  any  one  of  the  following  seven 
groups  of  animals:  C  (Coelenterata) ,  E  (Annelida),  H  (Mollusca), 
/  (Fishes),  K  (Reptiles),  L  (Birds),  M  (Mammals);  and  in  human 
physiology  on  the  topics  marked  with  a  *  under  A  (Introductory 
experiments  in  chemistry  and  physics) ,  B  (Foods) ,  C  (Digestion  and 
absorption),  D  (Blood),  E  (Circulation),  together  with  the  *  topics 
under  any  one  of  the  other  seven  main  subdivisions:  F  (Skeleton), 
G  (Muscles),  H  (Respiration),  /  (Skin  and  kidneys),  /  (Nervous 
system),  K  (Special  senses),  L  (Bacteria  and  sanitation). 

2  A  paper  for  students  who  have  taken  a  half  year  course  in 
botany.  Students  that  take  this  course  should  be  prepared  to 
answer  the  questions  based  upon  any  of  the  topics  not  marked 
optional  outlined  under  B  (Seeds  and  seedlings),  D  (Stems),  F 
(Leaves),  £  (Flowers),  and  under  any  four  of  the  other  six  main  sub- 
divisions: A  (  Introductory  experiments  in  chemistry  and  physics) , 
C  (Roots),  E  (Buds),  H  (Fruits),  /  (Algae  and  fungi),/  (Mosses 
and  ferns) . 

3  A  paper  for  students  who  have  taken  a  half  year  course  in 
zoology.  Students  that  take  this  course  should  be  prepared  to 
answer  the  questions  based  upon  any  of  the  topics  not  marked 
optional  outlined  under  A  (Protozoa),  F  (Crustacea),  G  (Insecta), 
/  (Amphibia) ,  and  under  any  four  of  the  following  seven  groups  of 
animals:  C  (Coelenterata),  E  (Annelida),  H  (Mollusca),  I  (Fishes), 
K  (Reptiles),  L  (Birds),  M  (Mammals). 

4  A  paper  for  students  who  have  taken  a  half  year  course  in 
human  physiology.  Students  that  take  this  course  should  be 
prepared  to  answer  the  questions  based  upon  any  of  the  topics  not 
marked  optional  outlined  under  A  (Introductory  experiments  in 
chemistry  and  physics),  B  (Foods),  C  (Digestion  and  absorption), 
D  (Blood),  E  (Circulation),  and  under  any  four  of  the  other  seven 
main  subdivisions:  F  (Skeleton),  G  (Muscles),  H  (Respiration), 
/  (Skin  and  kidneys),  /  (Nervous  system),  K  (Special  senses),  L 
(Bacteria  and  sanitation). 

The  topics  marked  optional  are  inserted  by  way  of  suggestion  for 
possible  additional  work,  but  no  questions  on  these  topics  will  appear 
in  the  examination  papers  of  the  Department. 


ELEMENTARY   BOTANY  109 


ELEMENTARY  BOTANY 


A     Introductory  experiments  in  chemistry  and  physics. 

These  experiments  are  grouped  here  for  convenience.  They 
may  be  performed  either  as  an  introduction  to  the  subject  of 
botany,  or  in  connection  with  the  various  topics  to  which  they 
are  most  closely  related. 

1  Observation  of  the  characteristics  of  a  few  of  the  more  common 
chemical  elements,  e.  g.  carbon,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  iron. 

2  Study  of  oxygen  and  the  air. 

*3  Oxidation  and  the  formation  of  compounds. 

4  {Optional)  Tests  for  acid,  alkaline  and  neutral  substances. 

5  (Optional)  Experiments  to  determine  favorable  and  unfavor- 
able conditions  for  evaporation. 

*6  Test  for  starch. 
*7  Test  for  grape  sugar. 

*8  Test  for  nitrogenous  substances  or  proteids. 
*q  Test  for  fats  and  oils. 

10  (Optional)  Test  for  mineral  matters  by  burning  plant  tissue. 
B  Seeds  and  seedlings. 

I  Dicotyledons. 

1  Exterior  of  fruit  and  its  parts. 

2  Interior  of  fruit,  with  arrangement  and  attachment  of  con- 
tents. 

*3  Form  of    seed;  coats;  explanation    of    markings    on    seed. 

Drawings. 
*4  Internal  structure  of  seed;  cotyledons,  plumule,  hypocotyl. 

Drawings. 
*5  Position  of  stored  food;  tests  for  food  materials. 
*6  Early  stages  of  seedling  to  show  change  in  parts  of  embryo. 

Drawings. 
*7  Method  of  breaking  through  the  soil. 
*8  Later  stages  of  seedling.     Drawings. 

II  Monocotyledons   (corn). 

1  Arrangement  of  grains  on  cob ;  protection  afforded  by  husk. 

*2  Form  of  grain;  external  markings,  including  silk  scar. 
Drawings. 

*3  Internal  structure;  endosperm,  cotyledon,  plumule,  hypo- 
cotyl.    Drawings  of  sections. 

*4  Position  of  food;  tests  for  food  materials. 

*5  Early  stages  of  seedling  to  show  changes  in  embryo  and 
endosperm.     Drawings. 


HO  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

III  Experiments    in    germination. 

i   Rate  of  growth  of  seedlings  as  affected  by   differences  in 

temperature. 
*2  Necessity  of  air  for  the  germination  of  seeds  and  growth  of 

seedlings. 
*3  The  gas  given  off  by  germinating  seeds. 
*4  Use  of  the  endosperm  of  the  corn. 

5  The  effect  of  continued  darkness  upon  seedlings. 

6  Seedlings   grown   at   home   to   determine   daily   changes  in 
various    parts. 

IV  (Optional)  Gymnosperms. 

i   Arrangement  of  seeds  in  cone. 

2  Exterior  of  seeds,  with  adaptations  for  seed  dispersal. 

3  Interior  of  seeds,  relation  of  embryo  and  endosperm.     Draw- 

ings. 

4  Stages  in  growth  of  seedling.     Drawings. 

Suggested  material  for  study  of  seeds  and  seedlings:   bean,  pea, 
morning-glory,  four-o'clock,  castor  bean,  squash,  radish,  sun- 
flower;   corn,  wheat;    pine. 
C  Roots. 

*i   External     appearance     and     internal     structure;       roothairs 
(position  and  function) ;  rootcap ;  region  of  growth ;  epidermis, 
cortex,  and  central  cylinder.     Drawings. 
*2  Origin  of  secondary  roots;  adventitious  roots. 
*3   Microscopic  study  of  root  tip. 
*4  (Optional)  Description  of  specialized  types. 
*5  Functions   of  roots. 

6  (Optional)  Tests   for   foods. 

7  Adaptations    to    environment. 

8  Experiments  to  demonstrate: 
*a  The  process  of  osmosis. 

*6  Response  of  roots  to  the  force  of  gravity. 

c  Region  of  most  rapid  growth  in  roots. 

d  (Optional)  Region  that  is  most  sensitive  to  gravity. 

e  (Optional)  Downward  pressure  of  growing  roots. 

/  (Optional)   Parts  through  which  liquids  rise. 
Suggested  material  for  the  study  of  roots:    roots  of  pea,  bean,  corn 
and   radish    seedlings;    willow,   spiderwort;    carrot,   parsnip, 
dahlia,  sweet  potato;   water  hyacinth,  duckweed;   ivy,  orchid; 
mistletoe,  dodder. 


ELEMENTARY   BOTANY  III 

D  Stems. 

i  Surface  characteristics. 
*a  Relative  position  of  bud  and  leaf  scar. 
*b  Nodes  and  internodes 
*c  Yearly  markings;    lenticels. 

d  Flower  scar. 

e  Ruptures  of  outer  layer  with  explanation. 
*/  Drawings  of  stem. 

2  Internal  structure. 

*a  Study  with  hand  lens  cross-sections  of  typical  dicotyle- 
donous stems;  location,  description  and  use  of  pith,  wood, 
medullary  rays,  cambium,  bast,  cortex  and  epidermis. 
Drawings. 

*b  Appearance  of  medullary  rays  in  quarter  sawed  wood;  study 
of  woods  valuable  in  commerce. 

*c  Cross-section  of  monocotyledonous  stem;  location,  descrip- 
tion and  use  of  rind,  pith,  and  fibro-vascular  bundles. 
Drawings. 

d  {Optional)  Microscopical  study  of  dicotyledonous  and  mono- 
cotyledonous  stems. 

3  {Optional)  Description  of  specialized  types  of  stems  (e.  g. 
cactus,  honey  locust  or  hawthorn,  potato,  Solomon's  seal  or  iris, 
hyacinth  or  onion,  myrsiphyllum).. 

4  Adaptations  of  stems  to  environment. 
*5  Course  of  sap  through  stems. 

6  Experiments. 

a  The  effect  of  continued  darkness  upon  stems. 
*b  The  response  stems  make  to  light. 
Suggested  material  for  the  study  of  stems:    horse-chestnut,  beech, 
linden;  corn,    rattan,    bamboo;  morning-glory,  grape;    cactus, 
honey  locust,  hawthorn;    potato,  iris,  hyacinth,  crocus;  myr- 
siphyllum, asparagus. 
E  Buds. 

*i  Relation  to  branches,  to  leaves  and  to  general  form  of  trees. 
*2  Methods  of  bud  protection. 

3  Contents  of  buds. 

4  Time  of  formation  of  buds  and  of  bud  opening. 

Suggested  material  for  the  study  of  buds:   horse-chestnut,  willow, 
tulip  tree,  sumach  or  sycamore,  spicebush. 
F  Leaves. 
*i  General   structure   and   parts   of   dicotyledonous   and   mono- 
cotyledonous leaves.     Drawings. 


112  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

*2  Functions    of    leaves;   photosynthesis,   respiration,   transpira- 
tion and  assimilation. 
*3  Microscopic  study  of  surface  of  epidermis. 

4  Microscopic  study  of  cross-section;    epidermis,  air  chambers, 
mesophyll,  and  fibro-vascular  bundles. 

5  (Optional)    Modifications   of    leaves;     special    adaptations   of 
leaves  to  perform  their  functions. 

6  Experiments  to  show: 

a  The  rate  of  transpiration. 
*b  Photosynthesis. 

*c  The  liberation  of  a  gas  by  green  aquatic  plants  in  sunlight. 
d  (Optional)  Conditions  under  which  oxygen  is  given  off. 
*e  Effect  of  light  on  movements  of  leaves. 
/  (Optional)  Response  of  leaves  to  touch. 
Suggested  material  for  the  study  of  leaves:    apple,  holly  or  moun- 
tain  laurel,    beech;  rose,    pea,    clover    or   oxalis;  corn;  pine; 
tropaeolum,  hydrangea,  elodea,  rubber  plant;  sundew,  pitcher 
plant,  venus  flytrap. 
G  Flowers. 
*i  Gross  structure  and  function  of  all  parts.     Drawings. 
*2  Location  and  structure  of  ovules  and  pollen;  the  process  of 

fertilization ;  development  of  ovule  into  seed. 
*3  Methods  of  securing  pollination. 

4  (Optional)  Types  of  inflorescence. 

5  Recognition  of  common  flowering  plants. 

Suggested  material  for  the  study  of  flowers:  buttercup,  cherry  or 
cinquefoil,  tulip,  gladiolus,  evening  primrose,  syringa,  bou- 
vardia,  mountain  laurel,  jack-in-the-pulpit,  snapdragon,  butter- 
and-eggs,  pansy,  sweet  pea,  white  daisy,  golden-rod.  (Wild 
flowers  have  not  been  included  to  any  extent  in  this  list,  be- 
cause of  the  danger  that  their  use  in  the  large  classes  of  city 
high  schools  might  hasten  the  extinction  of  many  species.) 
H  Fruits. 
*i  Origin  of  fruit  from  flower. 

2  Distinctions  between  seeds  and  fruits. 
*3  Types  of  fruits ;  external  and  internal  structure.     Drawings. 
*4  Adaptations  for  seed  dispersal. 
Suggested  material  for  the  study  of  fruits:  maple,  elm,  linden,  pine, 
cocklebur,  stick-tights,  pea,  bean,  peanuts,   dandelion,  milk- 
weed, oats,  wheat,  lotus,  jimson  weed,  various  kinds  of  fleshy 
fruits. 


ELEMENTARY  ZOOLOGY  113 

/  Algae  and  fungi. 

*i  Spirogyra  or  Zygnema. 

Color,  form,  structure;  cell  contents;  life  history.     Drawings. 

2  Yeast  plant  or  bread  mould. 

*a  Form,  color,  structure,  reproduction;  economic  importance. 

Drawings. 
b  Experiments    to    determine    favorable    conditions    for    the 

growth  of  fungi. 

3  (Optional)  Nitella. 
Protoplasmic  movements. 

4  (Optional)  Nostoc   or   Oscillatoria. 

Habitat;  adaptations  to  environment;  color,  form  and  structure 
of    colony;  reproduction.     Drawings. 

5  (Optional)  Fucus. 

Form,  color,  structure;  habitat;  adaptations  to  environment. 
Drawings. 

6  (Optional)  Sac  fungi  (Microsphaera) . 

Description  of  ripened  fruit,  and  its  relation  to  the  mycelium 
ascus  and  ascospores;  economic  importance. 

7  (Optional)  Rusts  and  smuts  (wheat  rust  and  corn  smut) . 
Economic  importance. 

8  (Optional)  Mushroom  or  shelf  fungus. 
Habitat;  description;  economic  importance. 

9  (Optional)  Lichens  (Physcia  or  Cladonia). 
Description  and  structure. 

J  Mosses  and  ferns. 
*i  Study  of  a  moss  (Polytrichum  or  Funaria). 
a  General  appearance,  parts.     Drawings. 
b  Degree  of  differentiation  of  sexual  and  asexual  generations. 
Reproductive  organs,  fertilization;  life  history. 
*2  Study  of  a  fern  (Poly podium  or  Nephrolepis). 

a  Degree  of  differentiation  of  parts,  description  of  each,  includ- 
ing sori.     Drawing. 
b  Life  history,  including  laboratory  study  of  prothallus,  sporo- 
phyte,  sporangia  and  spores. 

ELEMENTARY  ZOOLOGY 
A  Protozoa. 

I  Amoeba  or  Paramoecium. 

*i  Form  of  animal;  cell  body   (cytoplasm);  nucleus;  cilia  or 

pseudodia;  contractile  vacuole.     Drawing. 

2  (Optional)  Ectoplasm;  en doplasm;  food  balls ;  Tvater  vacuoles ; 

micronucleus. 


114  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

*3  Feeding;  locomotion;  function  of  contractile  vacuoles; 
respiration;  elimination  of  solid  waste;  reproduction  by 
fission;  habitat. 

4  Digestion;  assimilation;  growth. 
II  Related  topics. 

i  Comparison  of  Amoeba  with  a  ciliate  form. 

2  Protozoa  as  food  for  higher  forms. 

3  {Optional)  Foraminifera  and  chalk  formation. 
*4  The  cell  as  a  structural  and  physiological  unit. 

5  Conjugation  in  certain  protozoa. 
B  {Optional)  Porifera. 

I  Grantia  or  Leucosolenia. 

i  Shape;  attachment;  osculum.     Drawing. 

2  Cloaca;  pores;  canals;  skeleton.     Drawing. 

3  Methods  of  feeding;  breathing;  excretion. 

4  Reproduction;  life  history. 

5  Differentiation  in  character  of  cells. 
II  Related  topics. 

i  Commercial  sponge:  character  of  skeleton;  collection  and 
preparation  for  market ;  incurrent  pores ;  cloaca ;  oscula. 

2  Habitat  of  sponges. 

3  Spongilla,  or  other  fresh-water  sponges. 
C  Coelenterata. 

I  Hydra  or  Sea  anemone. 
*i   Shape;  external    parts.     Drawing. 

2  Experiments  to  determine  the  action  of  the  column  and  the 
tentacles. 

3  Ingestion  of  food  (in  case  the  living  sea  anemone  is  used). 
*4  Respiration;  excretion;  mode  of  locomotion. 

*5  Reproduction. 

*6  Method  of  obtaining  food;  digestive  cavity. 

7   {Optional)  Structure  of  body  wall. 
*8  Habitat;  means  of  protection. 
II  Related  topics. 

*i  Recognition  of  coral ;  sea  anemone;  medusae;  hydroids. 

2  {Optional)  Study  of  a  medusa.     Drawing. 

3  Alternation  of  generations  in  hydroids. 
*4  Economic  importance  of  corals. 

D  {Optional)  Echinodermata. 
I  Starfish. 

i  Form;  radial  symmetry;  spines;  branchiae  (gills);  madre- 
porite,  mouth;  ambulacral  areas;  movable  spines;  tube  feet. 
Drawing. 


ELEMENTARY   ZOOLOGY  115 

2  Nerve  ring;  radial  nerves;  eye-spot. 

3  Mode    of    locomotion    and    feeding;  respiratory,    digestive, 
water  vascular  and  reproductive  system. 

4  Habitat;  adaptations  for  protection;  economic  importance. 

5  Distinct  body  cavity;  three  layers  of  cells  in  body  wall; 
skeleton. 

II     Related  topics. 

1  Recognition  of  such  forms  as  sea  urchins ;  brittle  stars ;  sand 
dollars. 
E  Annelida. 
I  Earthworm. 
*i  General  form;    differences    between  anterior  and  posterior 

ends;  differences  between  dorsal  and  ventral  surfaces. 
*2  Segmentation;  bilateral  symmetry;  setae  (bristles). 
*3  Situation  of  mouth ;  "lip";  vent. 
4  {Optional)  Girdle;  one  pair  of  the  reproductive  openings. 
*5  Experiments:    flow  of    blood  in  dorsal  and  ventral  blood 
vessels;  methods  of  locomotion;  degree  of  sensitiveness  in 
different  parts  of  the  body. 
*6  Drawing  of  exterior. 
7   {Optional)  Parts  of  alimentary  canal,  and  function  of  each; 
circulatory  system ;  nervous  system ;  nephridia  and  excretion. 
Drawing. 
*8  Respiration;  mode  of  feeding. 
*9  Economic  importance. 
10  {Optional)  Life  history. 
II  Related  topics. 

1  {Optional)  Brief  comparison  of  sandworm  and  earthworm. 
*2  Life  history  of  the  tapeworm  and  trichina. 

F  Crustacea. 

I  Crayfish  or  lobster. 
*i  Regions;    structure   of    abdomen;    swimmerets;    carapace; 
legs ;  mouth  parts  (especially  second  maxillae  and  mandibles) ; 
antennae;  stalked  eyes;  form,  function  and  attachment  of 
gills.     Drawings. 

2  Vent;  opening  of  green  glands;  mouth. 

3  {Optional)  Comparison  of  structure  of  appendages. 

*4  Experiments  with  the  crayfish  to  determine  the  methods  of 
locomotion;  action  of  eyestalks;  action  of  the  gill  bailer; 
use  of  antennae  and  pincers. 

*5  Habitat;  habits;  protective  coloration. 


Il6  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

6  (Optional)    Structure    and   function    of    the   stomach,    in- 
testine and  "liver,"  heart  and  main  blood  vessels;  blood  and 
circulation;  nervous  system.     Drawings. 
II  Related  topics. 

*i  Economic  importance  of  decapods;  molting;  recognition  of 
several  decapods. 
2  (Optional)  Comparison  of  crab  and  crayfish. 
G  Insecta. 

I  Locust  (short  horned  grasshopper). 
*i  Regions;  kinds  of  appendages  found  on  each. 
*2  The  number,  structure  and   connection  of  the  segments  of 

the  abdomen. 
*3  Spiracles ;  tympanic  membrane ;  ovipositor. 
*4  Divisions  of  thorax ;  number,  situation  and  structure  of  legs 

and  wings. 
*5  Compound  and  simple  eyes;  antennae;  mandibles. 
6  (Optional)  Study  of  the  cornea  of  compound  eye  under  the 
microscope. 
*7  Drawings. 

*8  Experiments:  methods   of    locomotion;    manner   of  eating 
and  drinking;  breathing. 
9  General  structure  of  tracheae. 
*io  Economic  importance  of  the  grasshopper  and  of  other  mem- 
bers of  the  same  order. 
*n  Life  history. 

*i2  Recognition  of    crickets,    grasshopper  (long  horned),  cock- 
roaches; walking  sticks. 
II  Related  topics. 

*i  Structure  of  a  bee  and  a  butterfly  compared  with  that  of  the 
grasshopper  to  bring  out  similarities  and  differences;  life 
history;  habitat;  economic  importance  of  bee,  silkworm, 
and  destructive  caterpillars. 

2  Drawings  of  bee  and  butterfly. 

3  (Optional)  Structure  of  a  bettle,  a  fly,  and  a  bug  compared 
with  that  of  the  grasshopper;  life  history;  habitat;  econ- 
omic importance. 

*4  Cross  pollination  of  flowers ;  protective  coloration. 
5  General  principles  of  classification. 
H  Mollusca. 

I  One  of  the  following:  fresh-water  mussel,  soft-shelled  clam,- 
hard-shelled  clam. 
*i   Bivalve    shell;    hinge;  umbo;  lines    of   growth.      Drawing. 


ELEMENTARY  ZOOLOGY  117 

*2  Mantle;  siphons;    gills;    labial    palps;  foot;  abdomen;    ad- 
ductor muscles.     Drawing. 
3   (Optional)  Heart ;  intestine ;  location  of  liver  and  kidneys. 
*4  Experiments:  action  of  cilia  of  gills  and  palps;  currents  in 

and  out  of  the  siphons ;  pulsation  of  heart. 
*5  Respiration;  food  getting;  locomotion. 
II  Related  topics. 
*i  Recognition  of  oysters,  clams,  snails,  slugs,  scallops. 
*2  Economic  importance  of  mollusca. 

3  (Optional)  Study  of  a  live  snail  to  determine  tentacles  and 
their  action;  eyes;  creeping  disk;  method  of  feeding  and 
creeping. 

*4  Habitat  of  the  mollusca  studied. 
I  Fishes. 

I  Perch,  goldfish  or  any  bony  fish  of  fair  size. 

*i  Shape;  regions;  situation  of  eyes;  absence  of  eyelids; 
external  parts  of  the  eye;  number  and  situation  of  the 
nostrils;  demonstration  to  show  that  nostrils  do  not  lead  to 
the  mouth;  gill  cover;  number,  situation  and  structure  of 
the    fins;  scales.     Drawing. 

*2  Situation  and  shape  of  teeth;  tongue;  opening  into  gullet; 
color,  number,  situation  and  structure  of  gills. 

*3  Experiments  to  demonstrate  the  means  of  locomotion; 
movements  of  the  eyes;  feeding;  respiration. 

4  (Optional)  Shape,  situation  and  function  of  the  parts  of  the 
digestive  system ;  the  heart  and  blood  vessels  leading  to  the 
gills ;  blood  and  circulation ;  b  rain  with  nerves  to  nostrils 
and   eyes;  spinal    cord.     Drawing. 

II  Related  topics. 

*i  Recognition  of  several  kinds  of  bony  fishes. 
*2  Economic  importance  of  fishes. 
3   (Optional)  Life  history  of  bony  fishes ;  care  of  young. 
J  Amphibia. 
I  Frog  or  toad. 
*i  Regions;  situation,  and  external  parts  of  the  eyes;  eyelids; 
tympanic  membrane;  nostrils;  mouth;  front  and  hind  legs, 
with  parts  of  each ;  character  and  color  of  skin.     Drawing. 
*2  Opening  to  mouth  cavity  from  nostrils;  Eustachian  tubes; 
position  and  character  of  the  teeth;  shape,  attachment,  and 
action  of  tongue;  glottis. 
*3  Position,  shape  and  function  of  the  parts  of  the  digestive 
system;  the  kidneys  and  the  lungs;  the  heart  and  its  parts; 
arterial  trunk  and  its  branches.     Drawings. 


Il8  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

4  Blood,  with   study  of  corpuscles;    brief  account  of  entire 
circulation. 

5  {Optional)  Brain  and  its  parts;  olfactory  and  optic  nerves; 
spinal  cord.     Drawings. 

*6  Life  history;  habits;  means  of  protection. 
*7  Experiments  to  demonstrate  the  various  methods  of  loco- 
motion;   method  of  getting   air  into   the   lungs;   action   of 
eyes  and  movements  of  eyelids;  circulation  in  web  of  frog's 
foot  or  in  tadpole's  tail. 
II  Related  topics. 
*i   Recognition  of  salamanders,  newts,  toads  and  frogs. 

2   {Optional)  General  characteristics  of  amphibia. 
*3   Habitat  of   various   forms;    economic   importance  of  frogs 
and  toads. 
K  Reptiles. 

I  Lizard  or  turtle. 
*i  Regions;  eyes  and  eyelids;  nostrils;  ears;  the  shell  and  its 
function  (in  case  the  turtle  is  used) ;  number  and  parts  of  the 
legs;  scales.      Drawing. 
*2  Position    and    character  of  the  teeth   (or  beak  of  turtle) ; 

shape  and  attachment  of  tongue. 
*3   Experiments    to     demonstrate :     methods    of    locomotion ; 
manner  of  eating  and  drinking;  movement  of  eyes  and  eye- 
lids; respiratory  movements;  withdrawal  into  shell  of  tail, 
head  and  legs  of  turtle. 
II  Related  topics. 
*i  Recognition  of  turtles,  lizards,  alligators  and  snakes. 

2   {Optional)   Habitat  and  life  history  of  reptiles ;  hibernation. 
*3   Economic  importance  of  reptiles ;  poisonous  reptiles. 
L  Birds. 

I  Pigeon  or  English  sparrow. 

*i   External  parts  of  eyes;  eyelids;  position  of  nostrils;  beak; 
location  of  ears;  parts  of  legs  and  wings;  extent  of  wing 
surface;  arrangement  of  the  larger  feathers  on  the  wings 
and  tail ;  scales  on  legs.     Drawings  of  head  and  leg. 
*2  Experiments  to  demonstrate:  methods  of  eating  and  drink- 
ing; respiratory   movements;  action   of   eyes   and   eyelids; 
methods  of  locomotion;  perching. 
*3  Shape  and  attachment  of  tongue;  absence  of  teeth. 
4  {Optional)    Structure  and  function  of  the  parts  of  the  diges- 
tive system ;  situation  and  function  of  the  lungs  and  air  sacs ; 
the  significance  of  hollow  bones;  the  heart  and  its  parts; 
circulation. 


PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE  I IQ 

II  Related  topics. 
*i   Recognition    of    common  birds;  nest  building,  and  care  of 

young. 
,  *2   Economic  importance  of  birds  in  destroying  harmful  insects 

and   other   animals;  protection   of   birds. 
*3   Life  history;  migration;  molting;  bird  songs. 

4  Structural  adaptations  of  birds  for  flying,  such  as  shape  of 
>.>]/,  powerful  pectoral  muscles,  great  surface  of  wings, 
structure  and  arrangement  of  feathers  on  wings,  air  sacs, 
hollow  bones. 

5  {Optional)  Special  structural  adaptations  of  birds  for  swim- 
ming, perching,  scratching,  wading,  climbing,  and  preying 
upon  other  animals. 

M  Mammals. 

I  Rabbit,  cat,  squirrel,  or  any  available  mammal. 

*i  Regions;  eyes  and  their  external  parts;  shape,  size  and 
position  of  ears;  nostrils;  parts  of  legs;  differences  between 
the  front  and  hind  legs ;  characteristics  of  hair. 

*2  Experiments  to  determine:  methods  of  locomotion  and 
of   obtaining   food. 

*3  Kinds  of  teeth,  and  the  use  of  each. 
4  Skeleton :  spinal  column ;  skull ;  ribs ;  girdles ;  bones  in  legs ; 
brief  comparison  with  human  skeleton. 

II  Related  topics. 

*i  Recognition  of  common  animal  belonging  to  the  same 
order  as  the  one  studied;  economic  importance. 

*2  The  comparative  study  of  two  prominent  additional  orders 
of  mammals ;  the  common  animals  in  each  order ;  structural 
characteristics  common  to  the  animals  of  each  order ;  habits ; 
habitat;  food;  economic  importance.  (The  Rodents,  Car- 
nivora  and  Ungulates  are  suggested.) 
3  {Optional)  A  demonstration  of  the  internal  organs  of  some 
mammal  used  as  food;  heart  and  principal  blood  vessels; 
stomach  and  intestines;  kidneys;  lungs;  brain  and  spinal 
cord.  The  function  of  these  parts  should  be  taken  up  in  con- 
nection with  the  study  of  their  structure. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 

A   Introductory  experiments  in  chemistry  and  physics. 

If  plant  study  precedes  human  physiology,  most  of  these  ex- 
periments should  be  performed  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
plants. 


1:20  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

*i  Observation  of  the  characteristics  of  a  few  simple  chemical 

elements,  e.  g.  carbon,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  iron. 
*2  Study  of  oxygen  and  the  air. 
*3  Oxidation,   and  the  formation  of  compounds. 
*4  Tests  for  acid,  alkaline  and  neutral  substances. 
*5  The  principles  of  osmosis. 
*6  Test  for  starch. 
*7  Test  for  grape  sugar. 

*8  Test  for  nitrogenous  substances  or  proteids. 
*9  Test  for  fats  or  oils. 
10  {Optional)  Test  for  mineral   substances   by   burning    foods. 

B  Foods. 

*i  Necessity  for  foods. 

*2  Nutrients  (food  principles)  present  in  various  common  foods. 
3   {Optional)  How  plants  manufacture  food. 
*4  Adulterations  in  food  and  impurities  in  water. 
*5  Uses  of  the  nutrients   (water,  starch,  sugar,  proteids,  fats, 
mineral  matters). 

6  Relative  value  of  common  foods  for  fuel,  growth  and  repair. 

7  Principles  involved  in  cooking  of  foods. 

8  Economy  in  purchase  and  use  of  foods;   daily  diet. 
*9  Discussion  of  stimulants  and  narcotics. 

C  Digestion  and  absorption. 

*i  Position,  general  structure  and  functions  of  the  parts  of  the 

alimentary  canal,  and  of  the  principal  digestive  glands. 
*2  Kinds  of  teeth;  structure  and  care  of  the  teeth. 
*3  Experiment  to  show  digestion  of  starch. 
*4  Functions  of  saliva  and  of  gastric  juice. 

5  Functions  of  bile  and  pancreatic  juice. 
*6  Absorption  of  food  into  the  blood. 

.*7  Hygienic  habits  of  eating;  the  causes  and  prevention  of  dys- 
pepsia. 
*8  Effect  of  alcohol  on  digestion. 

9  {Optional)    Microscopic  structure  of  parts  of  the    alimentary 

canal  and  of  glands, 
io  {Optional)  Composition  of  digestive  juices. 
ii   {Optional)  Stages  in  the  process  of  swallowing. 

12  Experiments  to  show  digestion  of  fat,  proteid,  and  mineral 
matters. 

13  {Optional)  Study  of  teeth,   tongue,   stomach,  and  intestines 
of  other  animals  (e.  g.  dog,  rabbit,  sheep,  chicken). 


PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE  121 

D  Blood. 

*i   General  structure  of  blood;  corpuscles  and  their  functions; 

plasma  and  its  uses. 
*2  Clotting  of  blood. 
*3  Quantity  of  blood  and  its  distribution  in  the  body. 

4  {Optional)  Microscopic  study  of  blood  corpuscles  of  man   and 
of  other  animals. 

5  Effect  of  food,  fresh  air,  and  rest  on  corpuscles  and  plasma. 

6  {Optional)  Study  of  color,  temperature,  and  chemical   com- 
position of  blood  of  other  animals. 

E  Circulation. 

*i   Position,  shape,  size,  protection  of  the  heart. 

*2  Chambers  of  the  heart;  valves  of  the  heart  and  their  action; 
the  blood  vessels  connected  with  each  chamber  of  the  heart. 

*3  Position,  gross  structure,  and  use  of  arteries,  veins  and  capil- 
laries. 

4  Sounds  of  the  heart;  cause  of  pulse;  variations  in  pulse  rate. 
*5  General  course  of  blood  in  pulmonary  and  systemic  (includ- 
ing portal)   circulation. 

*6  Changes  in  the  composition  of  blood  as  it  passes  through 
various  organs  of  the  body  (walls  of  alimentary  canal,  lungs, 
muscles,  kidneys,  skin). 

*7  The  lymph;  its  composition  and  uses. 

8  {Optional)  The   lymphatic   system. 

9  Effect  of  exercise  on  the  circulation. 
*io  Treatment  of  cuts  and  bruises. 

*n   Effects  of  alcohol  on  circulation. 

12  {Optional)  Regulation  of  blood  supply  to  various  organs  of 
the   body;   congestions   and   inflammations. 

13  {Optional)  Study  of  circulation  of  other  animals  (e.  g.  earth- 
worm, frog,  bird,  mammal). 

F  Skeleton. 

*i  General  structure  and  uses  of  the  spinal  column,  ribs,  ster- 
num, bones  of  arm,  leg,  pectoral  and  pelvic  girdles. 

2  {Optional)  Structure  of  a  typical  vertebra  and  of  atlas  and 
axis. 

3  Adaptations  shown  in  the  skull  for  protection  of  nervous 
system  and  organs  of  special  sense. 

*4  Gross  internal  structure  of  a  long  bone  and  of  a  rib. 

5  Chemical  composition  of  bone. 

*6  Gross  structure  and  action  of  ball-and-socket  and  of  hinge 
joints. 


122  NEW   YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

7  Fractures,  dislocations,  sprains;  hygiene  of  the  skeleton. 

8  Differences   as   to    composition   and   structure   between   the 
skeleton  of  a  child  and  of  an  adult. 

9  {Optional)    Comparative  study   of  the  skeletons  of  various 
animals  in  the  museums. 

G  Muscles. 

*i  The  uses  of  voluntary  and  involuntary  muscle  tissue. 

*2  Arrangement  of  voluntary  muscles  and  their  gross  structure. 

3  {Optional)  Microscopic  structure  of  muscle. 

4  Blood  and  nerve  supply  to  muscles. 

*5  Necessity  of  food,  fresh  air,  exercise  and  rest  for  healthy 
muscle. 

6  {Optional)   Use  of  muscles  in  standing,  walking  and  running. 

7  {Optional)  Structure    and   uses    of   involuntary    muscles    in 
organs   of   digestion   and   circulation. 

8  {Optional)  Comparative  study  of  the  methods  of  locomotion 
of  various  animals. 

H  Respiration. 

*i   Necessity  for  respiration. 

*2  General  structure  and  functions  of  the  air  passages,  lungs, 
and  chest  cavity;  action  of  the  ribs  and  diaphragm  in  caus- 
ing enlargement  of  chest  cavity. 

*3  Changes  in  air  and  blood  in  the  lungs. 

*4  Hygienic  habits  of  breathing ;  effect  of  exercise ;  tight  clothing 
and  respiration;  suffocation  and  artificial  respiration. 

*5  Proper  methods  of  ventilation,  and  of  sweeping  and  dusting. 

6  {Optional)  Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs. 

7  {Optional)  Comparative    study    of    respiration    in     various 
animals. 

/  Skin  and  kidneys. 

*i   Layers  of  the  skin;  hair,  nails,  and  glands  of  the  skin;  general 

structure  and  uses. 
*2  Importance  of  cleanliness. 
*3  Treatment    of   burns. 

4  {Optional)  Microscopic  structure   of  the   skin. 

5  {Optional)  Comparative  study  of  the  exoskeletons  of   differ- 
ent kinds  of  animals. 

6  Position  and  gross  structure  of  the  kidneys. 

7  Changes  in  blood  in  the  kidneys. 
/  Nervous  system. 

*i  General  functions  of  the  nervous  system. 


ADVANCED    BOTANY  1 23 

2  {Optional)  Structure  and  functions  of  the  nervous    system 

of  the  frog  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  human 
nervous  system. 
*3  Gross  structure  and  functions  of  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  and 
nerves. 

4  Demonstration  of  microscopical  structure  of  nerve  cells  and 

fibers  of  the  spinal  cord. 

5  {Optional)  Principal  cranial  nerves;  origin,   distribution  and 

functions. 
*6  Necessity  of  food,  fresh  air,  and  rest  for  the  healthy  activity 
of  the  nervous  system.     Effect  of  alcohol  on  nerve  functions. 

7  {Optional)    Functions   of   the   sympathetic   nervous   system. 

8  {Optional)    Comparative    study    of    the    nervous    system    of 

various  animals. 
K  Special  senses. 

*i   Organs  and  sensations  of  touch,  taste  and  smell. 

*2  The  eye;  its  form,  protection,  principal  parts  and  their  uses; 

sensations  of  sight;  care  of  the  eyes. 

3  The  external,  middle  and  internal  ear  (general  structure  only) ; 

sensations  of  sound;  care  of  the  ears. 

4  {Optional)    Sensations    of    temperature,    pain,    hunger    and 

thirst. 

5  {Optional)    Comparative  study  of  the  sense  organs  of  other 

animals. 
L  Bacteria  and  sanitation. 

*i  Changes  due  to  the  growth  of  bacteria  (souring  of  milk,  de- 
composition etc.). 
*2  Diseases  due  to  bacteria;  methods  of  sterilizing  wounds;  the 
prevention  of  disease  (methods  of  disinfection,  quarantine, 
immunity). 
3  Municipal  sanitation:  water  supply  and  drainage;  work  of 
the  board  of  health  and  of  department  of  street  cleaning. 

ADVANCED  BOTANY' 

A  student  should  be  qualified  by  laboratory  work,  demonstrations, 
and  by  the  use  of  textbooks  to  answer  questions  on  all  the  topics 
in  the  syllabus  excepting  those  marked  Optional.  He  should  also 
prepare  an  indexed  laboratory  notebook  in  which  stress  is  to  be 
laid  upon  accurate  drawings  and  precise  expressive  descriptions. 

'The  syllabus  in  advanced  botany  is  based  upon  the  report  of  the  committee  on  botany  of 
the  science  dapartmBnt  of  th3  National  Eiucational  Association,  modified  by  a  committee  of 
the  Society  for  Plant  Morphology  and  Physiology. 


124  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

This  notebook  should  contain  (i)  laboratory  work  to  illustrate  fairly 
completely  at  least  the  following  six  main  topics  as  outlined  below 
under  A  (Anatomy  and  morphology) ;  The  seed,  The  shoot,  The  root, 
The  flower,  The  fruit,  and  The  cell) ;  (2)  records  of  at  least  1 5  physio- 
logical experiments  illustrating  as  many  as  possible  of  the  seven 
main  topics  outlined  under  B  (Physiology),  but  at  least  the  first 
four;  (3)  carefully  labeled  drawings  of  forms  to  illustrate  at  least  the 
following  groups  of  plants  (see  part  II  below):  two  types  of  algae 
(preferably  Pleurococcus  to  show  method  of  growth  to  four  celled 
stage,  and  detailed  study  of  Spirogyra),  three  types  of  fungi  (pre- 
ferably bacteria  to  show  shape  and  motion,  yeast  to  show  method 
of  reproduction,  and  mucor  to  show  mycelium  and  reproduction), 
one  type  of  Bryophytes  (preferably  a  moss),  two  types  of  Pterido- 
phytes  (a  true  fern  with  its  prothallus,  and  one  other  type,  pre- 
ferably Selaginella) ,  and  representatives  of  six  families  of  Angio- 
sperms.  It  is  difficult  to  outline  satisfactory  notebook  require- 
ments in  ecology.  This  branch  of  botany  should,  however,  form 
a  part  of  every  good  course,  and  clear  accounts  of  field  trips  should 
appear  in  the  notebook.  In  rating  the  notebook,  no  credit  will  be 
given  for  dictated  work,  lecture  notes,  or  drawings  copied  from 
charts  and  textbooks.  Work  done  outside  the  laboratory  should 
be  marked  home  work. 

A  student  taking  the  Department's  examination  must  prepare  a 
copy  of  the  index  of  his  notebook  and  attach  it  to  his  answer  paper 
at  the  time  of  the  examination.  This  copy  of  the  index  must  bear 
(1)  the  teacher's  indorsement  certifying  that  it  is  a  true  abstract 
of  the  student's  work,  and  (2)  the  teacher's  rating  of  the  notebook 
based  upon  a  scale  of  20.  Notebooks,  not  submitted  to  colleges  as 
a  part  of  the  entrance  requirements,  must  be  accessible  to  the  in- 
spectors and  be  subject  to  the  call  of  the  Department  for  a  period 
of  six  months  subsequent  to  the  completion  of  the  course. 

Part  I  The    general    principles    of   (a)  anatomy   and   morphology, 
(b)  physiology  and  (c)  ecology 

A  In  anatomy  and  morphology. 

The  seed.  Four  types  (dicotyledon  without  and  with  endosperm, 
a  monocotyledon  and  a  gymnosperm) ;  structure  and  homo- 
logous parts.  Food  supply;  experimental  determination  of  its 
nature  and  value.  Phenomena  of  germination  and  growth  of 
embryo  into  a  seedling  (including  bursting  from  the  seed,  as- 
sumption of  position  and  unfolding  of  parts). 


ADVANCED   BOTANY  1 25 

The  shoot.  Gross  anatomy  of  a  typical  shoot,  including  the 
relationship  of  position  of  leaf,  stem  (and  root),  the  arrange- 
ment of  leaves  and  buds  on  the  stem,  and  deviations  (through 
light  adjustment,  etc.)  from  symmetry.  Buds,  and  the  mode 
of  origin  of  new  leaf  and  stem ;  winter  buds  in  particular. 

Specialized  and  metamorphosed  shoots  (stems  and  leaves). 
General  structure  and  distribution  of  the  leading  tissues  of  the 
shoot;  annual  growth;  shedding  of  bark  and  leaves. 

The  root.  Gross  anatomy  ot  a  typical  root;  position  and  origin 
of  secondary  roots;  hair  zone,  cap  and  growing  point. 

Specialized  and  metamorphosed  roots.  (Optional)  General 
structure  and  distribution  of  the  leading  tissues  of  the  root. 

The  flower.  Structure  of  a  typical  flower  especially  of  ovule  and 
pollen;  functions  of  the  parts.  Comparative  morphological 
study  of  at  least  three  marked  types,  with  the  construction  of 
transverse  and  longitudinal  diagrams  (preferably  a  tulip 
or  other  lily,  Fuchsia  or  Oenothera,  and  sweet  pea  or  other 
member  of  pea  family). 

The  fruit.  Structure  of  a  typical  fruit,  especially  with  reference 
to  changes  from  the  flower,  and  from  ovule  to  seed.  (Optional) 
Comparative  morphological  study  of  six  or  more  marked  types, 
with  diagrams. 

This  comparative  morphological  study  of  flowers  and  fruits 
may  advantageously  be  postponed  to  the  end  of  II,  and  then 
taken  up  in  connection  with  classification  of  the  Angiosperms. 

The  cell.  Cytoplasm,  nucleus,  sap  cavity,  wall.  Adaptive  modi- 
fications of  walls,  formation  of  tissues. 

As  to  the  study  of  the  cell,  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  postponed 
for  consideration  by  itself  after  the  other  topics,  as  its  position 
in  the  above  outline  may  seem  to  imply,  but  it  is  to  be  brought 
in  earlier  along  with  the  study  of  the  shoot  or  root,  and  con- 
tinued from  topic  to  topic.  Although  enough  study  of  the 
individual  cell  is  to  be  made  to  give  an  idea  of  its  structure —  a 
study  which  may  very  advantageously  be  associated  with  the 
physiological  topics  first  mentioned  under  B — the  principal 
microscopical  work  should  consist  in  the  recognition  and  in  the 
study  of  the  distribution  of  the  leading  tissues. 
B  In  physiology. 

Role  of  water  in  the  plant:  absorption  (osmosis) ,  path  of  transfer, 
transpiration,  turgidity  and  its  mechanical  value,  plasmolysis. 

Photosynthesis:  dependence  of  starch  formation  upon  chlorophyll, 
light  and  carbon  dioxid ;  evolution  of  oxygen,  observation  of 
starch  grains. 


126  NEW   YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Respiration:  necessity  for  oxygen  in  growth,  evolution  of  carbon 

dioxid. 
Digestion:  digestion  of  starch  with  diastase,  and  its  role  in  trans- 
location of  foods. 
Irritability:  geotropism,  heliotropism   and  hydrotropism;    (Op- 
tional) nature  of  stimulus  and  response. 
Growth:    localization    in  higher  plants;   (Optional)    amount   in 

germinating  seeds  and  stems ;  relationship  to  temperature. 
Fertilization;  sexual  and  vegetative  reproduction. 

Although  for  convenience  of  reference,  the  physiological 
topics  are  here  grouped  together,  they  should  by  no  means  be 
studied  by  themselves  and  apart  from  anatomy  and  morphol- 
ogy. On  the  contrary,  they  should  be  taken  up  along  with  the 
study  of  the  structures  in  which  the  processes  occur,  and  which 
they  help  to  explain;  thus,  photosynthesis  should  be  studied 
with  the  leaf,  as  should  also  transpiration,  while  digestion  may 
best  come  with  germination,  osmotic  absorption  with  the  root, 
and  so  on.  The  student  should  either  try,  or  at  least  aid  in 
trying,  experiments  to  demonstrate  the  fundamental  processes 
indicated  above. 
C  In  ecology. 

Modifications  (metamorphoses)  of  parts  for  special  functions. 
Dissemination. 
Cross-pollination. 

Light  relations  of  green  tissues;  leaf  mosaics. 
(Optional)     Plant    societies;    mesophytes,    hydrophytes,    halo- 
phytes,  xerophytes;  climbers,  epiphytes,  parasites   (and  sapro- 
phytes), insectivores. 
(Optional)   Plant   associations,   and  zonal   distribution. 

The  topics  in  ecology  (particularly  the  first  four  and  in  part 
the  fifth)  like  those  in  physiology,  are  to  be  studied  not  by  them- 
selves, but  along  with  the  structures  with  which  they  are  most 
closely  connected,  as  cross-pollination  with  the  flower,  dissemina- 
tion with  the  seed,  etc.  The  fifth  and  sixth  may  most  advan- 
tageously be  studied  with  G  in  part  II. 

In  this  connection  field  work  is  of  great  importance,  and  for 
some  topics,  such  as  the  sixth,  is  indispensable,  though  much 
maybe  done  also  with  potted  plants  in  greenhouses  , photographs, 
and  museum  specimens.  It  is  strongly  recommended  that  some 
systematic  field  work  be  considered  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
course,  coordinate  in  definiteness  and  value  as  far  as  it  goes  with 
the  laboratory  work.  The  temptations  to  haziness  and  guessing 
in  ecology  must  be  combated. 


ADVANCED   BOTANY  1 27 

Part  II  The  natural  history  of  the  plant  groups,  and  classification. 

A  comprehensive  summary  of  the  great  natural  groups  of  plants, 
based  upon  the  thorough  study  of  the  structure,  reproduction  and 
adaptations  to  habitat  of  one  or  two  types  from  each  group,  sup- 
plemented and  extended  by  more  rapid  study  of  other  forms  in 
those  groups.  Where  living  material  is  wanting  for  the  latter, 
preserved  material  and  even  good  pictures  may  be  used,  and  a 
standard  textbook  should  be  thoroughly  read.  The  general  homol- 
ogies from  group  to  group  should  be  noted. 

In  general  in  this  part  of  the  course  much  less  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  lower  and  inconspicuous  groups,  and  progressively 
more  to  the  higher  and  conspicuous  forms. 

Following  is  a  list  of  recommended  types  from  which,  or  their 
equivalents,  selection  may  be  made: 
A  Algae. 

Pleurococcus,   Spirogyra,  Vaucheria,  including  zoosporic  stage. 
Fucus. 

(Optional)  Batrachospernum. 
B  Fungi. 

Bacteria,  mucor,  yeast,  Puccinia  (or  any  powdery  mildew).  (Op- 
tional) Mushroom. 

Bacteria  and  yeast   have   obvious   disadvantages  in  such  a 

course,  but  their  great  economic  importance  may  justify  their 

introduction. 
C  Lichens. 

Physcia  (or  Parmelia). 
D  Bryophytes. 

In  Hepaticae,  Frullaria  (or  Radula  or  Porella  or  Marchantia). 

In  Musci,  Mnium  (or  Funaria  or  Polytrichum) . 
E  Pteridophytes. 

In  Filicineae,  Aspidium  or  equivalent,  including,  of  course,  the 
prothallus. 

(Optional)  In  Equesetineae,  Equisetum. 

In  Lycopodineae,  Selaginella    (or   Isoetes).    (Optional)  Lycopo- 

dium. 
F  Gymnosperms. 

Pinus  or  equivalent. 
G  Angiosperms. 

A  monocotyledon  and  a  dicotyledon,  to  be  studied  with  reference 

to  the  homologies  of  their  parts  with  those  in  the  above  groups ; 

together  with  representative  plants  of  six  of  the  leading  sub- 
divisions   and    principal    families    of    angiosperms    (preferably 


128  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Liliaceae,  Rosaceae  or  Ranunculaceae,  Violaceae,  Labiatae, 
Leguminosae,   Compositae) . 

Classification  should  include  a  study  of  the  primary  subdivisions 
of  the  above  groups,  based  on  the  comparison  of  the  types  with 
other  (preferably)  living  or  preserved  material.  The  principal 
subdivision  of  the  Angiosperms,  grouped  on  the  Engler  and  Prantl 
system,  should  be  understood. 

The  ability  to  use  manuals  for  the  determination  of  the  species 
of  flowering  plants  is  not  considered  essential  in  this  course,  though 
it  is  desirable.  It  should  not  be  introduced  to  the  exclusion  of 
any  part  of  the  course,  but  may  well  be  made  voluntary  work  for 
those  showing  a  taste  for  it.  It  should  not  be  limited  to  learning 
names  of  plants,  but  should  be  made  a  study  in  the  plan  of  classi- 
fication as  well. 

The  preparation  of  an  herbarium  is  not  required  nor  recommend- 
ed, except  as  voluntary  work  for  those  with  a  taste  for  collecting. 
If  made,  it  should  not  constitute  a  simple  accumulation  of  species, 
but  should  represent  some  distinct  idea  of  plant  associations,  or 
of  morphology,  or  of  representation  of  the  groups,  etc. 

ADVANCED  ZOOLOGY1 

A  student  should  be  qualified  by  laboratory  work,  demonstra- 
tions, and  by  the  use  of  textbooks  to  answer  questions  on  all  the 
topics  in  the  syllabus  excepting  those  marked  Optional.  He  should 
also  prepare  an  indexed  laboratory  notebook  in  which  stress  is  to 
be  laid  upon  accurate  drawings  and  precise  expressive  descriptions. 
This  notebook  should  contain  outline  drawings,  carefully  labeled, 
of  the  external  and  internal  structure  of  a  protozoan,  a  coelenter- 
ate,  an  annelid,  a  decapod  crustacean,  and  a  vertebrate  [see  C 
below],  together  with  labeled  drawings  of  the  external  structure  of 
at  least  three  other  animals  (preferably  an  insect,  a  mollusk,  and 
a  second  vertebrate).  The  laboratory  book  should  also  contain 
carefully  prepared  notes  on  the  forms  enumerated  above,  and 
descriptions  of  other  animals  used  for  demonstrations  [see  A  below.] 
In  rating  the  notebook  no  credit  will  be  given  for  dictated  work, 
lecture  notes,  or  drawings  copied  from  charts  and  textbooks. 
Work  done  outside  the  laboratory  should  be  marked  home  work. 

A  student  taking  the  Department's  examinations  must  prepare 
a  copy  of  the  index  of  his  notebook  and  attach  it  to  his  answer 
paper  at  the  time  of  the  examination.     This  copy  of  the  index 

*The  syllabus  in  advanced  zoology  is  based  upon  the  report  of  a  committee  of  the  American 
Society  of  Zoologists,  Eastern  Branch. 


ADVANCED   ZOOLOGY  120, 

must  bear  (i)  the  teacher's  indorsement  certifying  that  it  is  a  true 
abstract  of  the  student's  work,  and  (2)  the  teacher's  rating  of  the 
notebook  based  upon  a  scale  of  20.  Notebooks,  not  submitted 
to  colleges  as  a  part  of  the  entrance  requirement,  must  be  accessible 
to  the  inspectors  and  be  subject  to  the  call  of  the  Department  for 
a  period  of  six  months  subsequent  to  the  completion  of  the  course. 
The  following  outline  includes  the  principles  of  zoology  that 
are  indispensable  to  a  general  survey  of  the  science.  It  is  not 
intended  to  indicate  the  order  of  study  of  the  topics;  this  must 
be  left  to  the  teacher  and  the  textbook. 

A  The  general  natural  history — including  external  structure  in 
relation  to  adaptations,  life  histories,  geographical  range,  rela- 
tions to  other  animals  and  to  plants,  and  economic  relations — of 
common  vertebrates  and  invertebrates  so  far  as  representatives 
of  these  groups  are  obtainable  in  the  locality  where  the  course 
is  given.  (The  types  suggested  are  a  mammal,  bird,  lizard,  snake, 
turtle,  newt,  frog,  dogfish  (or  other  shark),  bony  fish,  clam,  snail, 
common  crustaceans,  spiders,  myriapods,  insects  representing  at 
least  five  orders,  starfish,  earthworm,  hydra,  sea  anemone,  Para- 
mecium.) Actual  examination  of  these  common  animals  should 
be  supplemented  by  reading  giving  natural  history  information 
about  them  and  their  relatives.1  It  is  not  expected  that  there 
will  be  time  for  making  extensive  notebook  records  of  this  natural 
history  work.  So  far  as  time  permits,  drawings  should  be  made 
and  notes  written,  but  most  of  the  work  along  this  line  should  take 
the  form  of  laboratory  demonstrations. 
B  The  classification  of  animals  into  phyla  and  leading  classes 
(except  the  modern  subdivisions  of  the  worms)  and  the  great 
characteristics  of  these  groups.  In  the  case  of  insects  and  ver- 
tebrates the  characteristics  of  the  orders.  The  teaching  of  classi- 
fication should  be  by  practical  work  so  as  to  train  the  pupil  to 
recognize  animals  and  to  point  out  the  chief  taxonomic 
characteristics.  The  meaning  of  species,  genera  and  larger 
groups  should  be  developed  by  constructive  practical  work 
with  representatives  of  insect  or  vertebrate  orders. 
C  The  general  plan  of  internal  structure,  not  the  anatomical  min- 
utiae, of  one  vertebrate  (preferably  frog  or  fish)  in  general  com- 
parison with  human  body ;  an  arthropod  (preferably  a  decapod) ; 
an  annelid  (earthworm  or  Nereis) ;  a  coelenterate  (hydroid,  hydra 
or  sea  anemone) ;  a  protozoon  (a  ciliate,  and  amoeba  when  pos- 

XA  large  part  of  this  natural  history  information  will    be  gained  from  the  nature  study 
of  the  elementary  school  and  from  the  course  given  in  the  first  year  of  high  school. 


130  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

sible).     In  place  of  any  of  above  types  not  locally  available 
there  may  be  substituted  a  second  vertebrate,  a  mollusk,  an 
insect  or  an  echinoderm.     The  functions  of  the  chief  tissues  and 
their  positions  in  the  body  of  a  vertebrate  should  be  pointed  out. 
{Optional)  Tissues  should  be  examined  first  with  the  unaided 
eye,  in  such  a  structure  as  a  frog's  leg,  and  then  with  a  micro- 
scope a  demonstration  should  be  given  of  the  relations  of  cells  and 
intercellular  substance  in  epithelium  and  cartilage,  and  if  possible 
in  other  tissues. 
D  (1)  The  general  physiology  of  above  types,  involving  the  es- 
sentials of  digestion,  absorption,  circulation  (respiration),  cell- 
metabolism,  secretion,  excretion  and  nervous  functions.     This 
should  apply  comparatively  the  essentials  of  elementary  work 
in  human  physiology .     Demonstrations  and  experiments,  such 
as  are  suggested  in  high  school  textbooks  on  human  physiology, 
should  be  introduced,  or  recalled  if  not  previously  well  presented 
in  elementary  physiology,  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of 
the  chief  functions.     So  far  as  practicable  structure  and  function 
should  be  studied  together. 
(2)   {Optional)  Comparison  of  the  general  life  processes  in  ani- 
mals and  plants  (in  connection  with  botany  if  zoology  is  first 
studied). 
E  The  very  general  features  of  asexual  reproduction  of  a  proto- 
zoon  (preferably    Paramoecium) ;  alternations  of  generations  in 
hydroids;   reproduction   and   regeneration   of  Hydra;  the   very 
general   external   features   of  embryological   development  in   a 
fish  or  frog;  and  the  most  interesting  features  of  development 
in  the  case  of  other  animals  studied.     {Optional)  The  general 
cellular  nature  (not  centrosomes  and  the  like)  of  germ  cells,  fer- 
tilization and  cell  division  in  developing  eggs  should,  so  far  as 
possible,  be  demonstrated  and  briefly  described. 
F  The  prominent  evidences  of  relationship,  suggesting  evolution, 
within  such  groups  as  the  decapods,  the  insects  and  the  verte- 
brates,  should  be   demonstrated.     A  few   facts   indicating  the 
struggle  for  existence,  adaptation  to  environment,  variations  of 
individuals  and  man's  selective  influence  should  be  pointed  out; 
but  the  factors  of  evolution   and  the  discussion  of  its  theories 
should  not  be  attempted. 
G  {Optional)  Some    leading    facts    regarding    the    epoch-making 
discoveries  .of  biological  history  and  the  careers  of  such  eminent 
naturalists  as  Darwin,  Huxley,  Pasteur  and  Agassiz  should  be 
presented. 


ADVANCED  ZOOLOGY  13I 

The  above  outline  of  a  course  in  general  zoology  should  be  de- 
veloped on  the  basis  of  a  course  of  laboratory  study  guided  by 
definite  directions.  This  should  be  supplemented  by  the  careful 
reading  of  at  least  one  modern  elementary  textbook  in  general 
zoology. 


GROUP   3  (concluded) 
Physical  geography        Agriculture 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

This  syllabus  has  been  prepared  after  repeated  conferences  with 
some  of  the  best  known  teachers  of  physical  geography  in  high 
school,  normal  school  and  university,  who  on  urgent  request  have 
courteously  contributed  suggestion,  advice  and  material. 

The  outline  is  intended  to  suggest  work  for  190  class  exercises 
and  in  conformity  to  general  opinion  is  expressed  quite  in  detail  as 
few  schools  have  hitherto  assigned  the  subject  for  a  year  course. 
It  is  not  expected  that  teachers  will  place  equal  emphasis  on  all  the 
divisions  or  that  students  on  completing  the  course  will  be  equally 
familiar  with  all  the  topics.  Such  parts  of  astronomy  and  of 
geology  as  are  more  closely  related  to  the  subject  and  are  thought 
more  suitable  for  students  in  secondary  schools  are  included. 
As  some  schools  will  offer  the  subject  in  the  second  year  and  others 
in  the  fourth  year,  two  sizes  of  type  are  used,  matter  in  large  type 
being  more  essential  and  sufficient  for  a  satisfactory  second  year 
course  which  meets  the  college  entrance  requirements,  while  that 
in  small  type  may  be  introduced  into  a  more  thorough  course  given 
in  the  fourth  year. 

In  view  of  the  recommendation  of  the  N.  E.  A.  committee 
it  is  suggested  that  as  much  time  be  devoted  to  the  study 
of  the  land  as  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  rest  of  the  subject 
herein  outlined.  At  every  step  the  relation  of  man  to  the  topic 
under  consideration  and  the  manner  in  which  he  is  affected  by  it 
should  be  carefully  noted  as  this  is  the  important  aspect  of  the 
study.  It  is  thought  that  not  less  than  one  class  exercise  with  its 
accompanying  study  period,  consecutive  if  possible,  should  be 
devoted  each  week  to  laboratory  work.  In  this  time  the  student 
should  perform  exercises  having  an  aggregate  value  of  at  least  40 
selected  from  a  list  not  essentially  different  from  the  one  given. 
It  is  suggested  that  the  class  accompanied  by  the  teacher  make 
field  excursions  to  the  number  of  not  less  than  four  in  the  fall  and 
four  in  the  spring. 

The  results  of  laboratory  and  field  work  with  the  dates  should  be 
carefully  recorded  by  the  student  in  a  notebook,  of  which  an 
accurate  index  should  be  prepared  by  the  student. 

A  student  taking  the  Department's  examination  must  prepare  a 
copy  of  this  index  and  attach  it  to  his  answer  paper  at  the  time 

132 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  133 

of  the  examination.  This  copy  of  the  index  must  bear  the  teacher's 
indorsement  certifying  that  it  is  a  true  abstract  of  the  student's 
work,  and  the  teacher's  rating  of  the  notebook  based  upon  a  scale 
of  20.  Notebooks,  not  submitted  to  colleges  as  a  part  of  the 
entrance  requirement,  must  be  accessible  to  the  inspectors  and  be 
subject  to  the  call  of  the  Department  for  a  period  of  six  months 
subsequent  to  the  completion  of  the  course. 

The  earth  as  a  planet 

I  Origin. 

i   Nebular  hypothesis,  planetesimal  theory.1 

2  Solar  system:   sun,  planets,  planetoids  or  asteroids,  satellites, 

some  comets. 
a  Relation  of  sun  to  earth:   nature,  size,  distance,  attraction 

heat,  light,  eclipses  of  the  sun. 
b  Relation  of  other  planets  (and  planetoids)  to  earth :  nature ; 

general  idea  of  size,  order  and  distance  from  sun;   motions, 

light;  phases;  distinguished  from  stars. 
c  Relation  of  moon  to  earth:  nature,  size,  distance,  revolution, 

rotation,  light,  phases,  eclipses  of  the  moon,  other  satellites. 
d   Comets:  nature,  recognition,  time  visible,  celebrated  comets. 
e   Meteors  and  falling  stars :   time  when  most  numerous. 

3  Stellar  systems. 

II  Shape:  oblate  spheroid. 

i  Cause:  gravitation,  plasticity,  centrifugal  force  caused  by 
rotation. 

2  Evidences:  change  of  visible  constellations  with  change  of 
latitude,  curved  shadow  on  moon,  increase  of  horizon  with 
increase  of  observer's  altitude,  upper  parts  of  vessel  seen 
farthest,  variation  of  time  with  longitude,  circumnavigation, 
weight  of  a  body  nearly  constant  but  increasing  slightly 
with  latitude. 

3  Consequences:  some  of  above  evidences  (partly  from  other 
causes),  division  of  the  earth's  surface  into  climatic  zones, 
variation  of  plant  and  animal  life  depending  on  climate, 
necessity  for  commerce. 

III  Size. 

i  Measurements:  polar  and  equatorial  diameters,  circumference, 
area. 

2  Comparison  with  measurements  of  sun  and  moon. 

3  Method  of  determination :  problem  of  Eratosthenes. 

4  Relation  of  gravity:  effect  on  human  life  and  interests. 

xMatter  in  small  type  is  suggested  when  the  course  is  given  in  the  fourth 
year  but  is  not  advised  for  the  second  year. 


134  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

IV  Structure:  interior,  centrosphere ;  crust,  lithosphere;  water, 
hydrosphere;  air,  atmosphere;  directions  up  and  down;  points 
zenith  and  nadir. 

V  Motions. 

i  Rotation:    time,  direction,  distance,  axis,  poles,  equator. 

a  Results  and  evidences:  apparent  daily  motion  of  all  heavenly 
bodies  about  earth  or  polestar,  division  of  time  into  day  and 
night,  effects  on  habits  of  life,  bulging  at  equator  and  con- 
sequent flattening  at  poles,  deflection  of  currents  in  water 
and  of  winds,  eastward  deflection  of  falling  bodies,  Foucault's 
pendulum. 

b  Directions:  north,  direction  in  a  straight  line  toward  (i)  a 
point  on  the  horizon,  (2)  a  point  in  the  heavens;  south,  the 
opposite  of  north;  east,  (1)  direction  in  a  straight  line 
toward  a  point  on  the  horizon,  (2)  a  direction  of  curved 
motion,  rotation  and  revolution;  west,  the  opposite  of  east. 

2  Revolution:   time,  direction,  distance. 

a  Orbit:  size,  shape,  construction  of  an  ellipse,  sun  at  north 
focus,  perihelion  and  aphelion,  plane  of  orbit,  equinox  and 
solstice  used  to  designate  both  position  and  time. 

b  Inclination  of  axis,  inclination  of  axes  of  other  planets. 

c  Results  of  inclination  of  axis  and  revolution:  change  of 
seasons  involving  variation  in  period  and  angle  of  insolation, 
location  of  tropics  and  polar  circles. 

3  Motion  with  solar  system  through  space. 

VI  Localization  of  places. 

1  Latitude:  definition,  use. 

a  Instruments  for  determining:  plumb  and  level  with  card 
protractor  and  pin  to  cast  shadow,  compass. 

b  Establishing  a  meridian:  by  direction  of  polestar,  by 
shortest  shadow  of  vertical  rod  on  horizontal  plane,  by  use 
of  compass. 

c  Determination  of  latitude:  by  altitude  of  polestar,  by  alti- 
tude of  sun  at  meridian. 

d  Increase  in  length  of  degrees  toward  poles. 

2  Longitude:  definition,  prime  meridian,  use. 

a  Determination  of  longitude:  by  chronometer,  by  telegraph, 
by  comparing  local  time  with  calculated  time  of  observed 
astronomical  events. 

b  Decrease  in  length  of  degrees  toward  the  poles. 

VII  Time. 

1  Gregorian  calendar,  Julian  calendar,  meaning  of  old  style  (O.  S.) 
and  new  style  (N.  S.)  and  of  double  year  .figures  for  dates  between 
Jan.  1  and  Mar.  25. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  1 35 

2   Solar,  sidereal  and  lunar  day. 

3  Mean  solar  time:  equation  of  time,  determination  of  local  noon 
by  observation  of  shadow  on  meridian  corrected  by  applying  equa- 
tion of  time,  by  use  of  sextant. 

4  Civil  day :  from  midnight  to  midnight. 

5  Conventional  day:  beginning  at  international  or  intercalary 
date  line. 

6  Standard  time  in  the  United  States. 

VIII  Magnetism. 

1  Properties  of  a  magnet. 

2  The  earth  a  magnet:  theory  to  account  for  magnetism  of  earth, 
magnetic  poles  and  meridians,  magnetic  declination,  agonic 
lines,  isogonic  lines,  mariners  compass. 

3  Magnetic  inclination:  magnetic  equator,  isoclinal  lines,  dipping 
needle. 

IX  4Maps  and  map  projection. 

1  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  maps  as  compared  with 
charts  and  models. 

2  Use  of  contour  lines,  hachure  lines  or  varied  colors  to  show 
relief. 

3  Scales:  varied  for  different  purposes. 

4  Methods  of  projection:  Mercator's,  stereographic,  globular, 
orthographic,  cylindric,  conical. 

The  air 

I  Atmosphere. 

1  Definition. 

2  Origin  and  future  as  indicated  by  nebular  hypothesis.     '  •' 

3  Function  of  air  as  a  whole:  diffuses  light;  conducts  sound; 
enables  birds  to  fly ;  reduces  weight  of  bodies  immersed  in  it ; 
retains  heat;  by  its  movements  produces  waves  and  ocean 
currents,  moves  ships,  drives  windmills,  transports  rain,  snow 
and  other  objects,  destroys  property  and  life. 

II  Composition  of  air :  mechanical  mixture. 

1  Oxygen. 

a  Probable  origin  and  reason  for  its  presence  in  the  air. 
b  Nature,  relative  abundance,  distribution. 

c  Function:  necessary  to  animal  life;  oxidation,  rusting, 
burning. 

2  Nitrogen. 

a  Probable  origin  and  reason  for  its  presence  in  the  air,  lack  of  affinity 
for  other  elements. 

b  Nature,  relative  abundance,  distribution. 

c  Function:  dilutes  oxygen,  enriches  soils  through  medium  of  nitro- 
gen-gathering plants. 


I36  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

3  Carbon  dioxid. 

a  Nature,  origin,  relative  abundance,  distribution. 
b  Function:   necessary  to  plant  life,  action  when  dissolved  in 
water. 

4  Water  vapor. 

a  Nature,  origin,  relative  abundance,  distribution. 
b  Function:    necessary  to  both  plant  and  animal  life,  source 
of  clouds  and  precipitation. 

5  Dust. 

a  Nature  and  origin:  inorganic,  pulverized  rock,  ashes,  solid  parts  of 

smoke;  organic,  decayed  plant  and  animal  tissues,  living  germs. 
b  Distribution :  chiefly  over  land  in  low  altitudes  in  dry  weather. 
c  Effects:    influences   color  of  sky;    promotes  precipitation, 
decomposition  and  disease. 
6  Other  elements:  argon,  krypton,  helium  etc. 

III  Pressure  and  density. 

1  Relation  of  pressure  to  density  and  to  temperature.  • 

2  Evidences  of  pressure,  distinction  between  pressure  and  weight, 
weight  of  a  given  volume  of  air  at  sea  level,  weight  determined  by 
volume  and  pressure. 

3  Measurement  of  pressure. 

a  Mercurial  barometer:  essential  construction,  e;. entials  to  ac- 
curate reading,  meaning  of  variation  in  reading,  reason  for  using 
mercury  instead  of  other  liquids. 

b  Aneroid  barometer:  construction,  compared  with  mercurial 
barometer  as  to  advantage  in  construction  and  in  use. 

c  Barograph:  construction  and  use. 

4  Relation  of  pressure  to  altitude: 
a  Probable  depth  of  the  air. 

b  Reduction  of  barometer  reading  to  sea  level. 

c  Reduction  of  barometer  reading  to  standard  temperature. 

5  Variation  in  pressure  at  constant  level. 

a  Station  constant  with  time  varied,  pressure  curve. 

b  Time    constant    with    station    varied,    isobars,    barometric 

gradient. 
c  Isobaric  charts'  for  the  world  for  January  and  July,  cyclone 

or  low  and  anticyclone  or  high. 

IV  Temperature. 

1  Temperature  and  heat  distinguished. 

2  Sources  of  heat :  sun,  insolation  defined  and  its  relation  to  heat 
and  temperature  considered,  other  heavenly  bodies,  internal 
heat  of  earth. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  1 37 

3  Measurement  of  temperature. 

a  Liquid  thermometers:    construction,  scales,  maximum  and 

minimum. 
b  Metallic  thermometers :  construction. 
c  Thermograph:  construction  and  use. 

4  Different  capacities  of  land,  water  and  air  for  absorbing, 
reflecting  and  transmitting  the  heat  of  insolation. 

5  Ways  in  which  air  is  warmed  and  cooled. 

6  Elements  affecting  temperature: 

a  Distribution  of  heat:  determined  by  alternation  of  day  and 
night  and  change  of  seasons. 

b  Pressure:  association  of  lows  with  high  temperature  and  of 
highs  with  low  temperature. 

c  Latitude:  decrease  of  about  i  F.  for  increase  of  one  degree 
in  latitude. 

d  Altitude:  decrease  of  about  i  F.  for  increase  of  300  feet  in 
altitude. 

e  Bodies  of  water. 

/  Cloudiness. 

g  Prevailing  winds. 

h  Exposure:  sunny  slopes,  valleys,  relative  position  of  moun- 
tains. 

7  Variation  in  temperature. 

a  Station  constant  with  time  varied,  temperature  curve,  time 

of  maximum  and  minimum. 
b  Time  constant  with  station  varied,  isotherms,  temperature 

gradient. 
c  Isothermal  charts:  for  the  world  for  January  and  July,  heat 

equator,  cold  pole,  crowded  isotherms. 

8  Heat  belt  and  areas:  tropical  with  temperature  70  F.  or  above, 
temperate  with  temperature  between  70  F.  and  30  F.,  frigid 
with  temperature  below  30  F.;  more  regular  in  southern 
hemisphere  than  in  northern  hemisphere,  reasons. 

Movements  of  air. 

1  Definition:  winds,  currents. 

2  Inauguration  of  movement:  theoretical  explanation. 

3  Classification  of  winds  as  to  origin. 

a  Terrestrial:  planetary,  due  to  excessive  heating  at  equator 
and  rotation  of  the  earth,  found  in  regions  of  equatorial 
calms,  trades,  tropical  calms,  antitrades  and  circumpolar 
winds. 


I38  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

b  Cyclonic  winds:  irregular  winds  induced  by  local  highs  and 
lows  which  themselves  move  with  the  terrestrial  winds  where 
they  occur;  tropical  cyclones  originating  within  the  tropics 
and  dying  out  in  the  belt  of  westerlies  or  antitrades, 
equinoxial  storms;  extratropical  cyclones  originating  in 
summer  in  temperate  latitudes,  in  winter  in  high  latitudes; 
cold  and  hot  waves. 

c  Continental  winds:  in  summer  and  winter;  sea  and  land, 
valley  and  mountain  breezes,  by  day  and  night. 

4  Deflection  of  winds  from  barometric  gradient  to  right  in 
northern  hemisphere  and  to  left  in  southern  hemisphere, 
Ferrel's  law. 

5  Migration  of  terrestrial  wind  belts:  monsoons,  lagging  behind 
the  sun. 

6  Paths  of  cyclones  and  anticyclones  in  the  United  States  and 
adjacent  waters. 

a  In  the  North:    usually  southeast  to  the  Mississippi  valley, 

then  northeast  to  the  Atlantic. 
b  In  the  South:  usually  northeast  across  the  continent. 
c  Of  tropical  cyclones  from  the  West  Indies :  northwest  to  the 

vicinity  of  Florida  or  Carolina  coast  or  farther  inland,  then 

northeast. 

7  Change  of  temperature  in  vertical  currents:  due  to  expansion  or  com- 
pression, fall  of  1  F.  for  166  feet  rise. 

8  Velocity  of  winds. 

a  Measurement:  anemometer. 

b  Classification.  (1)  Calm:  no  perceptible  movement,  less  than  1 
mile  an  hour.  (2)  Light:  moving  leaves  on  trees,  less  than  10 
miles  an  hour.  (3)  Moderate:  moving  small  branches,  10  to  15 
miles  an  hour.  (4)  Brisk:  swaying  branches  and  raising  dust,  15 
to  25  miles  an  hour.  (5)  High:  swaying  trees  and  raising  leaves 
and  twigs,  25  to  40  miles  an  hour.  (6)  Gale:  breaking  branches 
and  uprooting  trees,  40  to  60  miles  an  hour.  (7)  Hurricane: 
destroying  houses,  above  60  miles  an  hour. 

VI  Humidity. 

1  Absolute  and  relative:  dew-point  and  its  relation  to  tempera- 
ture; measurement  and  instruments,  hygrometer,  psychrom- 
eter,  hygrodeik. 

2  Condensation. 

'  a  Causes :  changes  in  temperature  and  pressure. 
b  Forms:     clouds,    cirrus,    stratus,    cumulus,    nimbus;     fogs; 

dew;   frost;   precipitation,  rain,  snow,  hail,  sleet. 
c  Distribution:      causes,    winds,    barriers;     results,     deserts, 
semiarid  and  well  watered  regions. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  139 

d  Measurement:  rain  gage. 

e  Rains:  cyclonic,  tropical,  monsoon. 

VII  Weather  and  climate. 

1  Elements:  temperature,  precipitation,  cloudiness,  winds, 
impurities  in  the  air. 

2  Controlling  factors:  latitude;  altitude;  distance  from  ocean 
or  other  large  body  of  water;  position  with  reference  to 
mountains,  terrestrial  wind  belts,  paths  of  lows  and  highs. 

3  Lows  and  highs:  relation  to  local  winds,  precipitation  and 
temperature. 

4  Weather  maps. 

a  Construction  and  distribution  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment. 
b  Interpretation. 

5  Forecasting:  limits  and  benefits. 

6  Climatic  belts  and  regions. 

7  Changes  in  climate:  recent  and  remote. 

VIII  Electric  and  light  phenomena . 

1  Lightning,  St  Elmo's  fire,    aurora. 

2  Rainbow,  colors  of  sky,  coronas,  sun  dogs,  moon  dogs,  halos,  loom- 
ing, mirage,  zodiacal  light. 

The  ocean 

I  Area,  distribution,  characteristics,  functions,  adaptations. 

II  Sea  water. 

1  Composition:  varies  with  locality. 

2  Density:  varies  with  composition  and  temperature,  only  slightly 
with  pressure. 

III  Exploration  of  ocean:  sounding  and  dredging. 

1  Instruments:  for  ascertaining  depth  temperature,  rate  and  direction 
of  current  and  for  obtaining  samples  of  bottom,  water  and  life  at 
desired  depths. 

2  Use  of  instruments  and  immediate  results. 

IV  Depth:  maximum  and  average. 

V  Temperature:  sources  of  heat  and  elements  controlling  tem- 
perature, horizontal  and  vertical  variations,  temperatures  of 
deep  equatorial  seas  and  of  deep  mediterraneans  accounted  for. 

VI  Movements  of  ocean  waters. 

1  Wave  movements. 

a  Causes:   winds,  influence  of  moon  and  sun,  seismic  disturb- 
ances. 


140  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

b  Movements  of  wave  form  and  of  water  particles  in  wave. 

c  Parts:  crest,  trough,  front,  back. 

d  Qualities:  hight,  length. 

e  Modified  forms,  chiefly  of  wind  waves:  rollers,  breakers, 
surf,  undertow. 

/  Effects  of  wind  waves:  modify  shore  line;  aerate  water; 
destroy  sea  walls,  docks  and  vessels;  effects  modified  by 
use  of  oil;  furnish  power  to  ring  bells,  blow  whistles,  pump 
water,  etc. 

g  Interval  of  tides  (tide  waves):  lagging  behind  moon,  estab- 
lishment of  the  port,  unequal  period  of  rising  and  falling. 

h  Varieties  and  stages  of  tides:  spring,  neap,  flood,  ebb,  high 
water,  low  water,  slack  water. 

i  Modifications  of  tide  waves:  bores,  races,  tides  in  special 
places. 

j  Effects  of  tides:  modify  shore  line,  prevent  stagnation  of 
water  in  harbors,  carry  waste  out  to  sea,  affect  navigation, 
open  inlets  in  reefs  and  bars,  bring  food  to  fixed  forms  of 
animal  life,  furnish  power  to  tide  mills  and  for  raising  heavy 
weights  as  ships  and  bridges. 

k  Earthquake  waves:  unexpected,  effects. 
2  Currents  and  drifts. 

a  Defined,  contrasted  with  waves. 

b  Exciting  and  modifying  causes:  prevailing  winds;  changes 
of  level  due  to  evaporation,  precipitation,  expansion;  rota- 
tion of  the  earth,  Ferrel's  law;  obstruction  by  shore  lines. 

c  General  movements  in  all  oceans:  whirls  with  center  calm, 
sargasso  sea. 

d  Atlantic  currents:  equatorial  and  counter  equatorial  cur- 
rents, gulf  stream,  Greenland  and  Labrador  currents,  antarctic 
drift. 

e  Pacific  currents:  equatorials,  counter  equatorial,  Japan,  Humboldt, 
north  Pacific. 

/  Indian  currents:  south  equatorial,  Malabar,  Mozambique,  west 
Australian,  antarctic  drift. 

g  Polar  currents. 

h  Effects:  modify  climate,  Alaska,  British  Isles,  Labrador; 
transport  icebergs,  icepacks  and  floe  ice,  of  which  note 
origin,  characteristics  and  dangers;  distribute  plant  and 
animal  life ;  supply  driftwood  to  shores  destitute  of  growing 
timber;  affect  navigation. 
Creep :  slow  movement  of  cold  water  at  bottom  of  ocean  toward 

equator,  evidence,  cause,  effect. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  I4I 

VII  The  ocean  floor. 

1  Relief:  compared  with  that  of  land,  character,  cause. 

2  Origin  and  composition  of  material. 

a  On  continental  shelf:    chiefly  washings  from  land,  gravel, 

shingle,  sand,  mud. 
b  In  deep  water:    remains  of  minute  marine  life,  pteropod 

ooze,  globigerina  ooze,  diatom  ooze,  radiolarian  ooze. 
c  In  deepest  water:  volcanic  and  meteoric  dust,  red  clay. 

3  Possible  future:  by  successive  uplifts  deep  ocean  bottom  may  become 
continental  shelf ,  coastal  plain,  plateau,  faulted  mountains;  mud  and 
clay  may  become  shale  or  by  metamorphosis  slate;  coral,  shells, 
pteropod  ooze  and  globigerina  ooze  may  become  limestone  or  by 
metamorphosis  marble;  diatom  ooze  and  radiolarian  ooze  may  be- 
come silicious  rock  or  by  metamorphosis  quartz  rock. 

VIII  Life  in  the  ocean. 

1  Controlling  factors:  temperature,  light,  pressure,  currents, 
oxygen,  food. 

2  Regions. 

a  Littoral:  conditions  propitious,  vary  with  locality  and 
season,  favor  varied  forms;  mangrove  trees,  seaweeds, 
mammals,  numerous  and  valuable  fishes,  minute  and  larger 
shell-bearing  forms,  lobsters,  crabs,  barnacles,  sponges, 
corals. 

b  Pelagic:  forms  similar  in  all  localities;  conditions  at  bottom 
nearly  uniform  and  unpropitious ;  fishes,  shell-bearing  forms, 
crabs,  starfish,  corals. 

Water  other  than  ocean 

I  Source :  precipitation,  rainfall. 

II  Disposal. 

1  Evaporation:  controlling  factors,  amount,  effect  on  tempera- 
ture. 

2  Sinking  into  the  earth:  ground  water. 

a  Position:  depth  below  surface  of  the  earth. 

b  Destructive  action:  erosion  and  corrasion  by  its  rivers,  falls 
and  lakes;  solvent  action  increased  by  carbon  dioxid  in 
solution,  effects  on  salt  and  limestone,  caverns  and  life  in 
them,  sink  or  swallow  holes. 

c  Constructive  action:  deposits  as  veins,  stalactites,  stalag- 
mites ;  deposits  on  reappearing. 

d  Reappearance:  springs,  wells,  artesian  wells,  mineral  springs, 
hot  springs,  geysers. 


142  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

3  Run-off:  small  streams,  rivers. 

a  Correct  ideas:  river,  source,  banks,  bed,  mouth,  basin, 
system,  divide,  slope,  base  level. 

b  Work  of  rivers:  drainage  of  water  and  waste;  corrasion  of 
bed  producing  valleys,  falls,  potholes,  alluvial  terraces; 
corrasion  of  banks  producing  meanders,  oxbow  lakes, 
widening  of  flood  plain;  transportation  of  drift  on  surface, 
stones  and  pebbles  by  rolling  along  bottom,  sand  and  mud 
in  suspension,  salt  and  lime  in  solution;  grinding,  polishing 
and  comminuting  load. 

c  Normal  cycle  in  life  history  of  a  river:  youth  characterized 
by  falls,  rapids,  lakes,  V-shaped  valleys;  maturity  when 
previous  features  have  disappeared,  profile  of  equilibrium 
or  grade,  migration  of  divides;  old  age  characterized  by 
flood  plains,  oxbow  lakes,  elevation  of  river  bed  affecting 
tributaries  and  distributaries,  natural  levees,  deltas  and 
conditions  favoring  delta  formation. 

d  Cycle  interrupted  and  new  cycle  introduced:  by  depression 
producing  drowned  valleys,  bays,  dismembered  rivers, 
estuaries,  filled  valleys;  by  elevation  producing  revived 
rivers,  reversed  rivers,  intrenched  meanders,  antecedent 
rivers,  ingrafted  rivers,  river  terraces,  alluvial  terraces;  by 
change  of  climate  from  moist  to  arid  producing  wadies, 
salines,  salt  lakes,  play  as;  by  change  of  climate  from  warm 
to  glacial  producing  extinction  of  rivers  by  ice  sheet. 

e  Lakes:  (i)  relation  to  rivers;  (2)  formation:  by  uplift, 
original  lakes  on  coastal  plain ;  by  natural  progress  of  river 
cycle,  oxbow  lakes,  lakes  dammed  by  sediments;  by  glacial 
action,  lakes  in  glaciated  regions;  by  accident  such  as  land- 
slips, lava  flow,  work  of  beavers;  by  volcanic  action,  crater 
lakes;  (3)  water:  generally  fresh,  becoming  salt  if  evapora- 
tion is  large  in  proportion  to  outflow;  (4)  destruction:  by 
filling  with  plant  or  animal  matter,  salt,  silt  brought  in 
streams,  material  driven  by  winds,  dunes;  by  draining 
consequent  on  tilt  of  earth's  surface,  deepening  of  outlet,  new 
outlet;  by  evaporation;  (5)  function:  store  and  purify 
water,  regulate  river  flow,  compare  St  Lawrence  and  Ohio 
rivers,  promote  navigation,  affect  climate. 

/  Life  in  rivers  and  lakes:   compared  with  life  in  ocean. 

g  Falls  and  rapids:  origin,  recession  upstream,  grade  reaches 
between  falls,  economic  importance  of  falls,  location  of 
cities. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  1  43 

III  Glaciers. 

i  Kinds:  continental  or  ice  sheet,  alpine. 

2  Present  and  former  ice  sheets :  glacial  periods,  evidences. 

3  Formation:  manner  and  needed  conditions. 

4  Movement:  causes,  rate,  advance,  recession. 

5  Moraines:  source,  classification,  disposal. 

6  Work:  corrasion,  scratching,  grooving,  polishing;  transporta- 
tion; deposition;  plowing  out  valleys  parallel  to  movement, 
filling  valleys  not  parallel  to  movement ;  formation  of  terminal 
moraines,  kames,  eskers,  drumlins. 

7  Disposal:  melting  in  place  giving  rise  to  rivers,  carried  away 
by  ocean  currents  as  icebergs. 

8  Comparison  with  rivers. 

The  land 

I  Area,  distribution,  characteristics,  functions,  adaptations. 

II  Surface :  compared  with  the  floor  of  the  ocean. 

III  Rock. 

i   Definition. 

2  Classification. 

a  By  composition:  (i)  Silica:  quartz;  rock  crystal;  amethyst; 
chalcedony,  sard,  carnelian;  agate,  onyx,  sardonyx;  jasper, 
bloodstone;  opal,  hydrophane;  sand,  pebbles;  flint,  horn- 
stone.  (2)  Alumina:  alumina,  sapphire,  corundum,  emery. 
(3)  Lime:  carbonate  as  common  limestone,  calc  spar,  chalk, 
tufa,  stalactites,  oolite,  marl,  dolomite,  marble;  sulphate 
as  plaster,  satin  spar,  selenite.  (4)  Silicates:  feldspar  as 
orthoclase,  albite,  labradorite;  mica;  hornblende,  asbestos, 
pyroxene;  talc,  soapstone,  serpentine,  chlorite;  garnet; 
tourmalin. 

b  By  origin:  (1)  Sedimentary:  silicious  and  argillaceous  sand- 
stone; silicious,  calcareous  or  ferruginous  conglomerate  as 
pudding  stone,  breccia;  shale;  limestone.  (2)  Igneous: 
trap  rock  as  basalt,  greenstone,  porphyry,  amygdaloid; 
volcanic  rock  as  trachyte,  lava.  (3)  Metamorphic:  granite, 
gneiss,  mica  schist,  syenite,  marble,  anthracite  coal. 

c  By  structure:  unstratified,  stratified. 

3  Common  rocks:   study  to  secure  ready  identification. 

IV  Minerals. 

1  Definition,  composition,  characteristics. 

2  Classification. 

a  Native  metals  and  ores. 


144  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

b  Other  minerals  of  direct  and  important  economic  value. 
c  Minerals  of  importance  as  making  rocks. 
d  Other  minerals  not  important  in  this  study. 

V  Soil :  formation ;  residual,  transported ;  varieties ;  adaptations. 

VI  Causes  of  change. 

i  Diastrophism. 

a  Causes:  cooling,  shrinking,  wrinkling. 

b  Results:  continents,  ocean  basins,  changes  in  local  topogra- 
phy of  land  surface  and  ocean  floor. 

2  Isostasy:  suggested  adjustment  of  earth's  crust  to  load,  producing 
from  sea  bottom  new  land  areas,  near  and  parallel  to  present  coast 
line,  temporary  islands  and  mud  lumps  at  the  mouths  of  delta- 
forming  rivers. 

3  Volcanism. 

a  Probable  causes. 

b  Definitions:   volcano,  cone,  crater,  eruption  etc. 

c  Classification  of  eruptions:  explosive  due  to  expansion  of 
gases,  oozing  due  to  hydrostatic  pressure,  mixed. 

d  Phenomena  of  eruption:  before,  during  and  after. 

e  Products  of  eruption:    gaseous,  liquid,  solid,  economic. 

/  Classification  of  cones:  ash  (steepest),  lava  (flattest),  ash 
and  lava  (intermediate). 

g  Classification  of  volcanos:   active,  dormant,  extinct. 

h  Volcanic  sheets  and  necks. 

i  Distribution  of  active  volcanos:  proximity  to  ocean,  asso- 
ciation with  young  and  growing  mountains. 

4  Erosion,  transportation,  deposition. 

a  Causes:  gravity,  change  in  temperature,  chemism,  moisture, 
wind,  wave,  current,  stream,  sand  driven  by  wind,  plant 
and  animal  life. 

b  Results:  modification  of  the  larger  features  of  relief  pro- 
duced by  other  causes,  in  general  increasing  the  strength  of 
relief  to  maturity,  then  decreasing  that  strength  to  old  age. 

VII  Geographic  cycle. 

i  Influences  determining  length. 

a  Initial  elevation  of  land. 

b  Vigor  of  eroding  agents  or  character  of  climate. 

c  Resistance  of  rocks. 
2  Close  of  cycle:  production  of  peneplain. 

VIII  Forms  of  relief. 

i  Plains:    regions  of  slight  elevation,  fairly  smooth  surface  and 
relatively  horizontal  strata. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  1 45 

a  Coastal  plain:  uplifted  continental  shelf,  (i)  Narrow: 
simple  drainage.  (2)  Broad:  production  of  belts,  artesian 
wells.  (3)  Embayed:  drowning  of  former  marginal  iand. 
(4)  Ancient:  now  often  far  from  ocean.  (5)  Economic 
importance  of  coastal  plains. 

b  Alluvial  plain:  built  up  by  river  at  flood  stages.  (1)  Change 
in  position  of  stream  in  flood  plain,  meandering,  migration. 
(2)  Slope:  away  from  stream,  high  front  lands,  swampy 
back  lands.  (3)  Drainage:  turning  of  tributaries  down- 
stream as  they  enter  flood  plain,  distributaries.  (4)  Fitness 
for  life:  soil  fertile  and  easily  worked,  unhealthfulness, 
danger  from  overflow.  (5)  Protection  against  overflow: 
levees,  outlets. 

c  Lacustrine  plain.  (1)  Filled  and  drained  lake  basins: 
fertility,  fitness  for  life.  (2)  Dessicated  lake  basins:  salt 
plains,  characterize  arid  regions. 

d  Glacial  plain.  (1)  Cause:  chiefly  continental  glaciers. 
(2)  Deposits:  unassorted  and  unst ratified,  till.  (3)  Lakes: 
numerous,  due  to  youth  of  plain.  (4)  Characteristics: 
angular  and  scratched  pebbles  and  boulders,  balanced  rocks, 
sometimes  polished  and  grooved  bed  rock. 

e  Plain  of  denudation:   origin,  characteristics. 

Plateaus. 

a  Definition:  differ  from  plains  only  in  elevation. 

b  Dissected  plateaus,  canyons. 

c  Old  plateaus,  mesas,  buttes. 

d  Broken  plateaus:  faults,  fault  line,  fault  plane. 

e  Economic  importance  of  plateaus. 

Mountains. 

a  Definition:  distinguished  from  plateaus. 

b  Causes:  diastrophism,  volcanism. 

c  Classification.  (1)  Block:  due  to  uplift  and  faulting, 
analogy  to  broken  plateaus.  (2)  Domed:  broad  arch  or 
open  fold,  due  to  buckling  of  strata  from  lateral  pressure, 
or  to  intrusion  of  laccolite.  (3)  Folded:  both  simple  and 
complex,  probably  due  to  lateral  pressure  producing  anti- 
clines and  synclines;  anticlinal  valleys  and  synclinal  ridges. 
(4)  Massive:   not  properly  mountains  but  mature  plateaus. 

e  Life  history  of  mountains.  (1)  Youth:  steep  slopes,  land- 
slips, avalanches,  earthquakes,  ridges,  peaks,  bare  ledges. 
(2)  Maturity:  lowered  peaks,  water  gaps,  passes,  revealed 
mineral   deposits.     (3)    Old   age:     approach   to   peneplain, 


I46  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

production  of  monadnocks  or  relict  mountains,  deep  waste 
cloak,  uniform  and  forested  slopes. 

/  Hight:  dependent  on  initial  elevation,  vigor  of  eroding 
agents,  resistance  of  rocks,  age  of  mountains. 

g  Mountains  as  barriers:  retard  or  prevent  uniform  distribu- 
tion of  temperature  and  rainfall,  distribution  of  plants  and 
animals,  commerce  and  the  spread  of  civilization;  con- 
servativeness  of  the  inhabitants  of  mountains. 

h  Climate. 

i  Economic  value:  health  resorts,  timber  reserves,  mineral 
and  rock  wealth. 

IX  Shore  lines. 

1  Definition. 

2  Regular  shore  line,  resulting  from: 

a  Migration  of  shore  line  seaward  due  to  movement  of  earth's 

crust. 
b  Migration  of  shore  line  seaward  by  building  of  sand  reefs 

parallel  to  shore,  filling  lagoons  and  inlets;  cusp  and  crescent 

outlines. 
c  Migration  of  shore  line  seaward  by  formation  of  river  deltas. 
d  Smoothing  action  of  waves  and  currents  producing  sea  cliffs, 

bay -head  and  barrier  beaches,  land-tied  islands. 
e  Smoothing  action  of  ice  foot  in  high  latitudes. 

3  Irregular  shore  line:  resulting  from  migration  of  shore  line 
landward  due  to  movement  of  earth's  crust;  characteristics 
as  islands,  caves,  drowned  valleys,  dismembered  rivers,  promon- 
tories. 

4  Modification  of  shore  lines  by  plant  and  animal  life. 

a  Plant  life:    mangrove  trees  in  tropical  ocean,  marsh  and 

eelgrass  in  other  localities. 
b  Animal  life,  specially  corals.     (1)  Conditions  of  temperature 

and   depth   of   water   favoring   the   growth   of   coral.     (2) 

Fringing  reefs.     (3)  Barrier  reefs:   relation  to  fringing  reefs. 

(4)  Atolls:   theories  as  to  origin,  relation  to  barrier  reefs. 

5  Lake  shore  lines:   miniatures  of  ocean  shore  lines. 

6  Abandoned  ancient  shore  lines:   beaches  and  benches. 

7  Sand  dunes  along  the  shore. 

8  Harbors. 

a  Classification:     river,    delta,    estuary,    fiord,    lagoon,    sand 

bar,  sand  spit,  atoll,  crater. 
b  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  various  classes. 
c  Economic  importance:  location  of  cities. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  147 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES  IN   PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  numbers  in  curves  indicate  the  values  assigned  to  the  exercises, 
i  a  Construct  an  ellipse  to  scale  showing  the  correct  shape  of  the 

earth's  orbit. 
b  Show  the  position  of  the  earth  at  equinoxes  and  at  solstices 

with  dates. 
c  Distribution  of  sunlight  at  each  of  these  dates. 
d  Direction  of  rotation  and  revolution ;  distance  of  the  earth  from 

the  sun  at  aphelion  and  at  perihelion  (2). 

2  a  Construct  diagrams  showing  the  positions  of  the  earth,  sun  and 

moon  at  the  several  phases  of  the  moon. 
b  Position  of  the  moon  during  the  month  with  reference  to  the 

earth's  equator. 
c  Explanation  of  phases  and  reasons  why  eclipses  do  not  occur 

every  month  (1). 

3  a  Construct  diagrams  showing  partial  and  total  lunar  eclipses. 
b  Construct  diagrams  showing  partial,  total  and  annular  solar 

eclipses. 
c  Calculate  the  length  of  the  shadows  of  the  earth  and  the  moon 
and  the  diameter  of  the  earth's  shadow  where  the  moon  passes 
through  it  (2). 

4  a  Study  Eratosthenes's  method  of  finding  the  size  of  the  earth. 
b  Determine  the  length  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  by  this 

method. 
c  Check  any  error  by  finding  the  length  of  the  circumference  by 
simple  geometrical  means  (1). 

5  a  Construct  a  diagram  showing  the  determination  of  the  length 

of  the  solar,  the  lunar  and  the  sidereal  day. 
b  Comparison  of  values  with  an  explanation   (1). 

6  Determine  the  length  of  day  at  any  latitude  at  any  time  of  the 
year  (1). 

7  Find  the  place  of  sunrise  and  of  sunset  at  any  latitude  at  any 
time  of  the  year  (1). 

8  a  Plot  the  curves  of  a  shadow  cast  by  an  upright  post  at  any 

latitude  at  the  time  of  the  solstices  and  of  the  equinoxes. 
b  Interpretation  of  curves  (2). 

9  a  Find  a  north  and  south  line. 

b  Find  the  civil  time  of  local  noon  (2). 

10  a  Measure  the  angle  of  altitude  of  trees,  towers  and  sun. 
b  Construct  these  angles  (1). 

11  Determine   relative   heat   received    from   the   sun   at  different 
altitudes  (2). 


I48  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

12  Construct  and  interpret  sunrise  and  sunset  curves  (1). 

13  Determine  the  observer's  latitude  from: 
a  Sun's  altitude. 

b  Elevation  of  north  pole  (2). 

14  a  Make  a  Mercator's  projection  of  latitude  and  longitude  lines. 
b  Sketch  in  continents  from  a  globe  (2). 

15  Make  a  modified  Lambert's  projection  fixing  the  meridians, 
parallels,  tropics  and  polar  circles  (1). 

16  a  Make  an  orthographic  polar  projection  of  the  northern  hem- 

isphere locating  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  polar  circle. 
b  Locate  all  lines  showing  latitude  and  longitude  (1). 

17  Interpret  a  contour  map  as  to  drainage,  distances,  slopes  and 
relative  hights  (1). 

18  Make  vertical  sections  from  contour  maps  (1). 

19  Make  a  contour  map  from  given  data  (1). 

20  Make  interpolations  between  meridians  and  parallels  (1). 

21  Experiment  with  Foucault's  pendulum  (1). 

22  Determine  altitudes  by  use  of  barometer  (1). 

23  Determine  the  dew-point  and  calculate  from  data  the  relative 
and  the  absolute  humidity  (1). 

24  Account  for  differences  in  isothermal  charts  of  the  world  for 
January  and  July  (1). 

25  Account  for  position  and  migration  of  heat  equator  and  cold 
pole  (1). 

26  a  Study  isobaric  charts  of  the  world  for  January  and  July. 
b  Account  for  terrestrial  winds  in  these  months  (1). 

27  Interpret  records  of  thermograph,  barograph  and  wind  direction 
and  study  their  mutual  relations  (1). 

28  a  Keep  for  one  month  a  daily  record  of  pressure,  temperature, 

wind  direction,  state  of  sky,  humidity,  location  of  approaching 

low,  precipitation. 
b  Plot  pressure  and  temperature  curves. 
c  Study  of  mutual  relations  of  conditions  recorded  (5). 

29  Study  the  general  wind  direction  about  centers  of  low  and  high 
areas  from  weather  maps  (1). 

30  Find  the  direction  and  average  rate  of  the  progressive  move- 
ment of  a  storm  center  in  the  United  States  (1). 

3 1  Make  an  isobar  map  of  the  United  States  from  furnished  data  (1) . 

32  Make  an  isotherm  map  of  the  United  States  from  furnished 
data  (1). 

33  Study  the  distribution  of  cloudiness  and  rainfall  about  several 
storm  centers  (1). 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  I49 

34  Forecast  weather  conditions  from  furnished  data  (i). 

35  Study  cold  waves  and  northeasters  (i). 

36  Plot  curve  representing  daily  rainfall  for  one  year  at  a  given 
station  from  given  data  (i). 

37  Plot  tidal  curve  for  a  given  station  for  the  month  of  January 
from  given  data  (i). 

38  Interpret  the  tidal  curve  as  to  spring  and  neap  tides  and  diurnal 
inequality  (i). 

39  Test  sea  water  for  density,  taste  and  amount  of  gas  and  of  solid 
matter  in  solution  (2). 

40  Construct  a  diagram  showing  high,  low,  spring  and  neap  tides 
and  make  explanation  (1). 

41  Study  trade  routes  across  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  from 
pilot  charts  (1). 

42  Make  an  orderly  arrangement  of  nine  minerals  to  show  a  scale 
of  hardness  (2). 

43  Study   quartz,   feldspar,   mica   and   calcite   as   types   of   rock- 
forming  minerals  (2). 

44  Study  two  ores  of  each  of  the  following:   iron,  copper,  lead  and 
zinc  (2). 

45  Study  samples  of  soil  (2). 

46  Study  salt,  sulfur,  gypsum  and  graphite  as  types  of  nonmetallic 
minerals  of  direct  economic  value  (2). 

47  Study  8  or  10  common  rocks  (2). 

48  Construct  a  river  profile  (1). 

49  Study  regular  shore  lines,  Atlantic  City  topographic  sheet   (2). 

50  Study  irregular  shore  lines,   Boothbay,  Me.  topographic  sheet 

51  Study  glacial  topography,  Whitewater  topographic  sheet  (2). 

52  Make  a  collection  of  glaciated  and  of  water-washed  pebbles  (2). 

53  Study  the  Appalachian  mountains,  Harrisburg  sheet  (2). 

54  Study  volcanic  effects,  Mt  Shasta  sheet  (2). 

55  Study  river  development,  a  young  region,  Ottawa,  111.  sheet  (2) . 

56  Study  river  development,  a  mature  region,  Charleston,  W.  Va. 
sheet  (2). 

57  Study  river  development,  an  old  region,  Caldwell,  Kan.  sheet 

w- 

58  Study  Mississippi  river,  upper  course,  Savanna,  111.  sheet  (2). 

59  Study  Mississippi  river,  meanders,  Mississippi  river  sheet  no.  14 
(2). 

60  Study  Mississippi  river,  natural  levees,  Donaldsonville,  La.  sheet 

(2). 


I50  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

61  Study  Niagara  falls,  survey  and  maps  (2). 

62  Study  a  drowned  river  valley  (2). 

63  Study  a  plain,  Wicomico,  Md.  sheet  (2). 

64  Study  a  plateau,  Kaibab,  Ariz,  sheet  (2). 

65  Study  distribution  of  coniferous,  deciduous  and  tropical  forests, 
and  the  relation  of  such  distribution  to  climate  (2). 

66  Study  distribution  of  areas  producing  the  most  important  grains 
and  the  relation  of  such  distribution  to  climate  (2). 

67  Study  distribution  of  areas  producing  the  most  important  fiber 
plants  and  the  relation  of  such  distribution  to  climate  (2). 

68  Study  distribution  of  areas  producing  the  most  important  fruits 
and  the  relation  of  such  distribution  to  climate  (2). 

69  Study  distribution  of  animal  life  and  its  relation  to  climate  (2). 

70  Study  distribution  of  human  population  as  to  density  and  the 
relation  it  bears  to  soil,  climate,  water  power,  harbors  etc. 

FIELD   EXCURSIONS 

In  making  field  excursions  the  points  to  be  studied  will  depend 
on  the  locality.  Such  topics  as  clouds  and  their  movements, 
weathering,  erosion,  transportation,  deposition,  river  currents, 
waves,  tides,  rocks,  minerals,  foldings,  faults,  dikes,  evidences'  of 
upheaval  and  subsidence,  natural  slope  of  different  materials,  land 
forms,  location  of  highways,  soil,  falls,  rapids,  water  power,  harbors 
and  distribution  of  plant  and  animal  life  are  of  special  importance. 


AGRICULTURE  151 


AGRICULTURE1 


This  outline  presents  an  orderly  arrangement  of  work  for  a  three 
period  course  for  one  year.  It  should  preferably  be  pursued  in  the 
second  year  of  the  high  school,  after  the  pupil  has  completed  a  year's 
work  in  biology.  The  student  must  also  have  some  knowledge  of 
elementary  chemistry;  if  this  knowledge  has  not  been  obtained  in 
the  study  of  biology,  one  or  two  weeks  should  be  devoted  to  it  before 
the  specific  subjects  of  the  course  in  agriculture  are  undertaken. 
The  pupil  should  have  an  elementary  knowledge  of  chemical  com- 
bination and  also  of  the  14  elements  chiefly  concerned  in  the  com- 
position of  soil  and  the  production  of  plants  and  animals:  (1) 
carbon;  (2)  hydrogen;  (3)  oxygen;  (4)  nitrogen;  (5)  sulphur; 
(6)  phosphorus;  (7)  iron;  (8)  calcium;  (9)  magnesium;  (10) 
potassium;  (11)  sodium;    (12)  chlorin;  (13)  silicon;  (14)  aluminum. 

Abundant  laboratory  work  should  be  provided,  at  least  one 
period  out  of  the  three,  every  week.2 

Agricultural  operations  are  conducted  for  two  immediate  pur- 
poses: to  raise  plants,  and  to  raise  animals.  Plants  are  raised 
either  for  their  own  value  or  for  their  use  in  the  feeding  of  animals. 
In  studying  agriculture,  therefore,  it  is  well  to  begin  with  the  plant, 
then  proceed  to  the  animal,  and  then  consider  questions  of  practice 
and  management  that  grow  out  of  these  subjects. 

Part  I     The  plant  and  crops 

The  study  of  the  plant  may  be  provided  for  under  two  general 
heads:  (1)  the  plant  itself;  (2)  the  environment  that  influences  or 
modifies  the  plant. 

Section  1  The  plant  itself 
CJnder  section  i,the  plant  may  be  studied  in  relation  to  (a)  compo- 
sition ;  (b)  structure ;  (c)  physiology ;  (d)  heredity  and  plant-breeding. 
On  the  assumption  that  the  student  has  covered  categories  a,  b  and  c 
in  his  work  in  botany,  these  subjects  are  omitted  here;  therefore, 
only  part  d,  together  with  a  classification  of  agricultural  plants,  is 
outlined  here. 

A  Classification  of  economic  plants. 

1  Cereals. 

2  Grasses. 

3  Legumes. 

4  Vegetables. 

lThis  syllabus  lias  been  prepared  at  the  request  of  the  Education  Department  by  represent- 
atives of  the  faculty  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University. 

2It  is  expected  that  an  outline  of  laboratory  exercises  to  accompany  the  topical  syllabus 
will  be  issued  in  the  fall  cf   1905. 


152  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

5  Fruits. 

6  Tubers. 

7  Roots. 

8  Sugar  plants. 

9  Oil  plants. 

10  Fiber  plants. 

11  Stimulants.  ■] 

12  Medicinal  and  aromatic  plants. 

13  Timber  crops  (forestry). 

14  Flowers  and  ornamental  plants. 
B  Heredity  and  plant-breeding. 

1  Principles. 

2  Processes. 

3  Steps  in  improvement  of  plants. 

a  Variation:     environment,    crossing. 

b  Selection. 

c  Testing  hereditary  power. 

4  Illustrations  of  improvement  in  plants. 

5  Methods  of  improvement. 

Section  2     Environment  of  the  plant 

The  subject  of  environment  may  be  studied  under  the  following 
heads:  (a)  light  and  heat;  (b)  air;  (c)  soil;  (d)  moisture;  (e) 
applied  plant  food;    (/)  repressive  and  noxious  agencies. 

C  Light  and  heat. 

1  Relative  interdependence. 

2  Effect. 

3  Influence  of  character  of  light. 

4  Influence  of  seasons. 

5  Temperature  for  germination  and  growth. 

6  How  modified:  by 
a  Color. 

b  Evaporation. 
c  Topography. 
d  Character  of  soil. 
e  Cultivation. 
f   Rolling. 

g  Thickness  of  planting. 
h  Fermentation. 

i   Artificial  means:    screens,  electricity,  artificial  heat. 
D  Air. 

1  Function  above  ground. 
a  Oxygen. 
b  Carbon  dioxid. 


AGRICULTURE  1 53 

2  Function  in  soils. 
c  Oxygen. 

d  Nitrogen. 

e  Removal  of  carbon  dioxid. 

3  Processes  of  soil  ventilation. 
/By  diffusion. 

g  By  expansion  and  contraction  of  air  due  to  temperature. 
h  By  expansion  and  compression  due  to  barometric  pressure. 
i  Suctional  effect  of  gusts  of  wind. 
/  Air  absorbed  by  rain  water. 

k  By  removal  of   water  through  drainage,  evaporation  and 
transpiration  of  plants. 
E  The  soil — function  of  the  soil. 

i  As  rootholds  and  mechanical  supports  of  plants. 
2  As  sources  of  plant  food. 
F  The  soil — origin. 

i  Disintegration  and  decomposition  of  rocks. 

2  Erosion,    transportation    and    deposition    of    sediment    (by 
water  and  ice). 

3  Sorting  out  of  sand,  silt  and  clay  by  running  water  and 
deposition  of  soils  of  different  texture  as  a  result  of  sorting. 

4  Movement  of  soils  by  wind. 

5  Decay  of  animal  and  vegetable  materials.     Humus. 
G  The  soil — physical  composition. 

i  Solid  matter:  mineral,  organic. 

2  Liquid  matter:  impure  water  or  soil  solution,  air. 

3  Gaseous  matter:  carbonic  acid  gas,  water  vapor. 

H  The  soil — kinds  of  soils:  peat,  muck,  clay,  loam,  sand,  gravel, 

stony  soils. 
I  The  soil — texture  of  soils:   relation  of  texture  to  air,  retention 
and  movement  of  water,  drainage,  temperature,  weight  and  solidity, 
roothold  of  plants. 

J  The  soil — plant  food  in  the  soil  and  air  (general  survey), 
i  Elements  essential  to  plant  life. 

2  Elements  found  in  minerals. 

3  Elements  and  compounds  in  air  (oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon 

dioxid,  ammonia). 

4  Elements  in  water  (hydrogen,  oxygen  and  dissolved  oxygen). 
K  Moisture. 

i  Purpose. 

2  Importance. 

3  Quantity  required. 

4  How  modified:  by 


154  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

a  Kind  of  soil. 

b  Topography. 

c   Fertilizers  and  amendments. 

d  Cultivators. 

e   Drainage  and  irrigation. 
L  Plant  food. 

i  According  to  constituents. 

a  Nitrogenous. 

b  Phosphoric. 

c   Potassic. 

d  Amendments. 
2  According  to  form. 

e  Green  manures.     Cover  crops. 

/   Animal  manures.     Farm  manures. 

g  Commercial  manures  or  fertilizers. 
M  Plant  food  (farm  manures), 
i   Properties. 

2  Sources. 

3  Uses. 

4  Preparation,  care  and  handling. 

5  Application. 

6  Economy. 

N  Plant  food  (commercial  fertilizers). 
i  Sources. 

2  Uses. 

3  Application. 

4  Economy. 

5  Offices  of  the  leading  elements  of  commercial   fertilizers — 
nitrogen,    potassium,    phosphorus. 

0  Repressive  agencies, 
i  Insects. 

2  Fungous  diseases. 

3  Acidity  of  soil. 

4  Toxic  agencies  and  untoward  conditions. 
P  Farm  crops. 

Actual  study  of  the  leading  crops  of  the  community.  The 
products  themselves  should  be  actually  handled  and  studied  in 
school,  as  ears  of  corn,  beans,  wheat  (in  head  and  straw  if  possible), 
potatoes,  oats,  fruits,  vegetables.  Determine  physical  character- 
istics, as  weight,  size,  shape,  color  etc.  Discuss  the  methods  of 
growing  the  crop :  its  place  in  the  farm  scheme  and  in  the  rota- 
tion;   methods  of  preparing  the  land   and    tillage;    fertilizing; 


AGRICULTURE  1 55 

harvesting;  marketing;  insect  and  fungous  enemies;  its  im- 
portance in  the  community ;  history.  At  least  one  crop  should  be 
thus  studied  in  detail. 

Part  II     Animals  and  animal  husbandry 

Q  The  kinds  of  domestic  animals. 

i  Classification  of  common  domestic  animals. 
Mammals.     Cattle,  sheep,  swine,  horses,  asses,  mules,  dogs. 
Birds:  fowls,  ducks,  geese,  pigeons,  turkeys. 
Insects:  bees. 
2  Zoological    relationships:     origin,    history    of    domestication, 
purposes  for  which  ke^t,  races,  breeds  and  varieties  of  each. 
R  Nutrition  of  domestic  animals, 
i  Relations  of  plant  and  animal  life. 

2  The    chemical    elements    of   nutrients:    their    number  and 
occurrence  in  plants  and  animals. 

3  The  compounds  of  animal  nutrients. 

a  Water:    in  living  plants,  feeding  stuffs,  the  animal.     Its 
occurrence   and  functions. 
b  Mineral    matters    (ash)   in     the~plant   and  in   the- animal: 
amount  and  distribution. 
c  The  nutrients. 
5  Nutrition   {continued).     The  nutrients  in  detail, 
i   Protein. 
a  Nomenclature. 
b  Examples. 
c  Composition. 
d  Physical  characteristics 
e  Variability. 
/   Occurrence. 
g  Distribution. 

2  Carbohydrates. 
a  Examples. 

b  Composition. 

c   Physical  characteristics. 

d  Nitrogen — free  extract  and  crude  fiber. 

e  Starches. 

/    Sugars. 

g  Occurrence  and  distribution. 

3  Fats  and  oils. 

a  Character  and  composition. 
b  Occurrence  and  distribution. 


I56  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

4  Functions  of  the  nutrients. 
a  Protein. 

b  Carbohydrates  and  fat. 
c  Relations  to  one  another. 
d  Nutritive  ratio. 
e  Food  as  a  source  of  energy. 
/   Heat  relations. 
T  The  digestion  and  utilization  of  food. 

1  The  digestive  tract. 

2  Ferments. 

3  Conditions  influencing  digestion. 
a  Palatableness. 

b  Quantity. 

c  Stage  of  growth  of  plant. 

d  Effect  of  methods  of  preservation  and  storage. 

e   Grinding. 

/   Addition  of  salt. 

g  Frequency  of  feeding  and  watering. 

h  Determination  of  digestibility. 

4  Distribution  and  use  of  digested   food ;    also   elimination    of 
wastes. 

U  Foods. 

1  Pasturage. 

2  Forage  and  fodders:  green  and  dried  fodders,  soiling,  silage. 

3  Roots  and  tubers. 

4  Concentrated  feeding  stuffs:  grains  and   seeds,  commercial 
by-products. 

V  Rations. 

1  Food  requirements  of  different  animals  for  different  purposes. 
a  For  maintenance. 

b  For  work. 

c  For  growth  (young  animals). 

d  For  flesh  (fattening) . 

e  For  milk,  eggs,  wool  etc. 

2  Combination  of  fodders  into  rations. 
/   Amount  of  nutrients. 

g  Amount  of  water  (succulence) . 

h  Relative  proportions  of  protein  and  nonprotein  (nutritive 

ratio) . 
i   Palatableness. 
j  Effect  on  product. 
k  Economy. 


AGRICULTURE  157 

W  Animal  products. 

i  Flesh:  beef,  mutton,  pork,  poultry;  relation;  compo- 
sition; quality  as  determined  by  age  and  condition  of 
animal ;   relative  suitability  as  food  for  man ;   economy. 

2  Eggs:  composition;  quality  as  affected  by  food  of  fowl; 
methods  of  preservation ;  economy. 

3  Milk. 

a  Source ;  kind  of  animal ;  physiology  of  secretion ;  methods 
of  milking. 

b  Quality;  chemical  and  physical  properties;  natural  varia- 
tions as  affected  by  animal,  by  food,  by  environment,  by 
adulteration. 

c   Determination    of   specific   gravity,    fat,    organisms,    im- 
purities, adulteration. 
X  The  animal.     (The  animal  form  as  related  to  production) 
i  Animal  mechanism  in  relation  to  speed  and  force,  types  of 

animals  for  production  of  milk  and  beef,  wool  and  mutton, 

eggs    and  flesh.      Correspondence    of    individual    to    type. 

Standards  or  scales  of  points;  methods  of  scoring 
2  Selection  of  animal  with  reference  to  future  generations; 

heredity;     variation;     evolution     of     modern    forms    from 

simpler  types. 

Part  III    Farm  schemes  and  management 

Y  Farms  schemes, 
i  Kinds  of  farming. 

2  Rotations,  considered  as  to  history,  principles  and  systems. 

3  Lay-out  of  farms,  as  to  arrangement  of  fields,  lanes,  water 
supplies,  buildings. 

Z  Farm  practice, 
i  Tillage. 
a  Purpose  and  effects. 
b  Methods. 

2  Drainage. 

c  Purpose  and  effects. 
d  Methods. 

3  Irrigation. 

e  Purpose  and  effects. 
/   Methods. 


GROUP  4 
HISTORY 

Ancient  history  English  history 

European  history  American  history 

In  December  1880,  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York  sent 
out  to  academic  schools  a  summary  statement  of  examinations 
in  which  were  definite  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  scope  of  the 
instruction  advisable  in  the  different  fields  of  academic  study. 
These  suggestions  were  submitted  to  the  academic  schools  with 
a  request  for  careful  consideration  and  criticisms  and  evidently 
form  the  basis  of  succeeding  Regents  syllabuses.  The  fields  of 
history  recommended  in  these  suggestions  of  1880  were  American, 
English,  Greek,  Roman,  civics  and  economics,  and  the  entire  out- 
lines for  the  six  fields  covered  only  four  pages. 

In  1883  a  noted  educator  undertook  the  editorship  of  a  peda- 
gogic library  and  chose  the  subject  of  history  for  the  initial  vol- 
ume because  he  thought  that  no  subject  so  widely  taught  was 
taught  so  poorly ;  and  it  is  significant  that  six  university  professors 
or  distinguished  writers  of  history  contributed  to  the  contents  of 
that  volume. 

The  estimate  of  history  teaching  made  in  1883  is,  perhaps,  still 
valid;  but  the  intervening  years  have  been  a  period  of  promise 
and  progress.  The  publications  referred  to  seem  to  mark  the 
beginnings,  in  this  country,  of  cooperative  effort  to  secure  bet- 
ter secondary  teaching  in  general  and  specially  better  teaching 
of  history.  The  growth  of  cooperative  spirit  among  history 
teachers  may  be  traced  in  the  formation  of  the  Committee  of  Ten 
which  met  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in  1892,  in  the  Columbia 
Conference  of  1896,  in  the  appointment  of  the  Committee  of  Seven, 
and  its  report  in  1899  and  in  the  formation  of  history  teachers 
associations  in  New  England,  in  the  North  Central  States,  in 
Nebraska,  California  and  Indiana  and  in  the  Middle  States  and 
Maryland. 

The  results  of  these  various  efforts  are  as  follows:  a  uniform 
course  of  history  for  secondary  schools  has  been  planned  and 
widely  adopted;  uniform  requirements  for  admission  to  college 
supplemented  by  uniform  entrance  examinations  have  been  pro- 
vided; a  movement  to  articulate  the  courses  of  college  history 
with  those  of  the  high  school  has  been  started;   a  wisely  adapted 

course  of  history  for  elementary  schools  is  now  under  considera- 

158 


HISTORY  159 

tion;  tendencies  to  overemphasize  the  use  of  local  history  and 
sources  in  secondary  schools  have  been  checked;  better  methods 
of  history  teaching  are  gaining  ground  in  both  high  school  and 
college;  the  demand  for  specially  trained  history  teachers  is  grow- 
ing ;  better  textbooks  in  all  the  fields  of  history  have  been  abund- 
antly provided. 

One  of  the  most  important  results  of  these  cooperative  efforts 
has  recently  appeared  in  the  publication  of  a  History  Syllabus 
for  Secondary  Schools1  prepared  by  a  special  committee  of  the 
New  England  History  Teachers  Association.  This  committee  was 
instructed  "to  prepare  ...  a  report  on  practical  methods  of  teach- 
ing history,  with  such  topical  outlines,  references,  and  bibliographies 
as  shall  help  teachers  to  put  into  operation  such  suggestions  for 
reform  in  history  teaching  as  may  be  applicable  to  the  conditions 
in  secondary  schools."  The  committee  began  its  work  early  in 
1900  before  the  syllabus  revision  committee  of  the  Associated 
Academic  Principals  could  organize,  and  issued  a  preliminary 
report  in  1901. 

At  an  early  date,  the  committee  charged  with  the  revision  of 
the  history  syllabus  for  New  York  State  determined  to  keep  in 
touch  with  the  work  of  the  New  England  committee,  and  to  adopt, 
so  far  as  expedient,  a  report  that  would  embody  the  experience 
of  the  best  history  teachers  of  New  England. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  authors  and  publishers,  the  general 
surveys  and  topical  outlines  in  ancient,  European  and  American 
history  of  the  syllabus  prepared  by  the  committee  of  the  New 
England  History  Teachers  Association1  are  presented  to  the  teach- 
ers of  New  York  State.  Some  slight  but  important  modifications 
seemed  necessary.  A  syllabus  of  English  history  based  wholly  on 
a  1  epical  treatment  has  been  prepared  with  the  hope  that  topical 
Leaching  will  thereby  be  promoted.  There  is  no  serious  difference 
in  the  topics  presented  in  the  English  history  syllabus  of  the 
New  England  committee  and  in  that  of  New  York  State.  The 
bibliographies  and  references  of  the  New  England  syllabus  may 
be  used   with  profit  by  both  teachers  and  pupils. 

In  presenting  the  following  extended  syllabus,  it  is  not  pro- 
posed to  prescribe  a  larger  amount  of  subject-matter  as  a  burden 

'History  Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools,  Outlining  the  Four  Years' 
Course  in  History  Recommended  by  the  Committee  of  Seven  of  the 
American  Historical  Association  by  a  special  committee  of  the  New  England 
History  Teachers  Association;  published  by  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston 
1904;  published  also  in  parts  for  the  use  "of  pupils;  contains  invaluable 
bibliographic   references   and   suggestions   for  teachers  and   pupils. 


i6o 


NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 


for  the  memory.  On  the  contrary  there  has  been  an  earnest 
effort  to  select  such  topics  in  the  various  fields  as  are  most  sus- 
ceptible and  most  worthy  of  assimilation;  to  present  historic 
happenings  in  their  proper  perspective;  to  analyze  historic  move- 
ments and  thus  to  show  the  relations  of  events  that,  to  the  pupil's 
mind,  might  seem  isolated;  to  provide  a  moderately  large  range 
of  topics  not  for  the  sake  of  prescription  but  to  encourage  academic 
freedom;  to  lead  to  the  use  of  the  notebook,  the  encyclopedia, 
the  library,  the  atlas  and  collateral  reading;  to  commend  the 
good  textbook  not  as  a  tyrant  but  as  a  guide. 

It  is  specially  worthy  of  note  that  the  past  should  be  constantly 
compared  with  the  present;  that  history  can  be  assimilated  only 
through  the  imagination;  that  the  imagination  should  be  helped 
by  the  judicious  use  of  historic  fiction,1  source  material2  and  well 
chosen  pictures. 

The  attention  of  history  teachers  is  directed  to  the  valuable 
helps  that  may  be  secured  from  the  State  at  a  trifling  cost.  The 
lanterns  and  slides  for  visual  instruction  that  have  been  furnished 
to  every  school  employing  a  superintendent  may  be  borrowed  by 
other  schools.  Traveling  libraries,  collections  of  photographs, 
lanterns  and  lantern  slides  are  loaned  by  the  Home  Education 
Department  to  any  academic  school. 

Courses.  The  following  courses  of  history  in  the  order  given 
and  with  the  prescribed  time  allotments  are  either  required  or 
recommended. 


Minimum 

recitation 

time 

Maximum 

recitation 
time 

Allotted  year 
of  the  second- 
ary course 

a  Ancient  history 

3  periods 

a 

week 

5  periods 

a 

week 

first 

or 

second 

b  European  history 

3  periods 

a 

week 

5  periods 

a 

week 

second 

c  English  history 

3  periods 
a 

week 

5  periods 

a 

week 

third 

or 
second 

d  American  history 

5  periods 

a 

week 

fourth 

or 

third 

xSee  "Historical  fiction,"  History  Syllabus  for  Secondary  Schools,  p.  28,  29. 
2See  "Sources,"    Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  100-10;   also, 


Historical  Sources  in  Schools.       Macmillan. 


HISTORY  l6l 

i  Recommended  only  for  large  high  schools  and  academies  that 
maintain  four  year  courses  in  the  different  fields  of  secondary 
study:    a,  b,  c  and  d. 

2  Recommended  in  general  for  high  schools  and  required  of  all 

schools  maintaining  courses  of  study  preparatory  for  the 
teachers  academic  certificate  or  for  entrance  to  normal  or 
training  schools:    a,  c  and  d. 

3  Required  of  all  schools  sharing  in  the  apportionment  for  non- 

resident students:    c  and  d. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  order  in  which  the  different  fields 
of  history  are  studied  is  most  important.  The  courses  planned 
are  progressive.  American  history,  which  includes  civil  govern- 
ment, demands  a  fair  acquaintance  with  English  history,  and 
English  history  will  be  much  better  apprehended  by  those  who 
have  had  their  imaginations  stirred  by  a  study  of  the  ancient  peo- 
ples. European  history  is  recommended  only  for  large  high  schools 
for  two  reasons :  it  is  difficult  to  find  time  for  four  years  of  history 
in  the  ordinary  high  school  program;  the  most  essential  portions 
of  European  history  must  be  studied  as  a  part  of  English  history. 
Long  experience  has  shown  that  the  study  of  English  history  is 
most  productive  if  deferred  to  the  third  high  school  year. 

Civics  and  economics  as  separate  high  school  studies  are  not 
recommended,  though,  to  meet  certain  public  needs,  separate 
examinations  in  these  subjects  will  still  be  given.  Throughout  all 
the  courses  in  history  comparisons  should  be  made  with  present 
customs,  forms  of  government  and  economic  conditions.  Teachers 
of  American  history  who  have  not  been  specially  prepared  by 
courses  in  civics  and  history  will  do  well  to  continue  the  use«of  a 
separate  textbook  in  civics ;  but  the  study  of  history  and  the  study 
of  civics  should  be  united  in  a  single  topical  course1  and  it  will  be 
the  duty  of  each  teacher  to  provide  for  his  class  a  course  in  which 
civics  and  history  will  supplement  each  other. 

The  courses  as  planned,  whether  they  are  to  be  taught  three 
periods  or  five  periods  a  week,  are  continuous,  extending  through 
a  year.  The  skilful  teacher  whose  recitations  are  limited  to  three 
a  week  will  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  secure  from  the 
class  a  larger  amount  of  collateral  reading  than  would  be  possible 
with  half  year  courses. 

By  the  use  of  "topics  for  advanced  pupils,"  the  syllabus  may  be 
adapted  almost  equally  well  to  the  needs  of  classes  whether  maxi- 

1  Teachers  of  American  history  may  find  help  in  the  bibliographic  refer- 
ences of  the  syllabus  of  civil  government. 


1 62  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

mum  or  minimum  time  is  required.  Among  the  topics  assigned 
for  advanced  pupils  have  been  included  some  based  on  source 
material  that  may  profitably  be  used  by  younger  pupils,  provided 
the  necessary  time  and  proper  library  facilities  are  afforded.  It 
is  not  believed,  however,  that  any  of  these  extra  topics  will  prove 
so  easy  as  to  seem  unworthy  of  attention.  They  may  form  the 
basis  of  much  valuable  composition  work. 

It  is  not  intended  that  every  pupil  or  that  any  pupil  shall  be 
held  responsible  for  every  additional  topic  or  for  a  majority  of  these 
topics.  Different  topics  may  be  assigned  to  different  pupils,  to 
different  groups  of  pupils  or  to  some  specially  interested  in  history 
work.  Many  of  the  topics  may  not  specially  appeal  to  a  particu- 
lar teacher  or  class  and  need  not  be  used  at  all.  Some  of  the 
topics  proposed  may  suggest  other  topics  more  interesting  to  the 
class.  Used  with  freedom,  the  topics  will  enliven  the  teaching; 
used  thoughtlessly  or  blindly,  they  will  prove  more  of  a  hindrance 
than  a  help. 

Though  this  syllabus  is  based  on  the  experience  of  many  suc- 
cessful history  teachers,  it  is  not  presented  as  an  oracle  nor  as  a 
finality  in  history  teaching.  History  as  a  culture  study  is  a  new- 
comer among  the  subjects  of  the  secondary  curriculum.  Before 
every  thoughtful  teacher  lie  unexplored  continents  and  uncharted 
seas.  Within  the  next  five  years  it  will  doubtless  appear  that  much 
historical  material  now  assigned  for  secondary  study  should  be 
omitted  or  very  lightly  touched  on.  New  material,  better  methods 
of  presentation  and  different  emphasis  may  be  expected  as  teachers 
gain  truer  knowledge  of  the  youthful  mind  and  of  adolescent 
interests.  Specially  should  great  effort  be  made  to  reawaken  the 
dormant  imagination  of  childhood,  to  encourage  youthful  tend- 
encies to  self-activity  and  to  vitalize  historic  truth. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  TO  800  A.  D. 

The  study  of  history  is  valuable  in  so  far  as  it  promotes  culture, 
service  and  progress.  A  narrow  teaching  of  historic  events  is 
therefore  almost  useless.  These  truths  are  specially  applicable  to 
early  high  school  work  in  ancient  history.  The  immaturity  of 
pupils  at  once  demands  and  makes  difficult  the  attainment  of  cul- 
tural results;  yet  if  the  pupil  obtained  nothing  from  ancient  his- 
tory but  a  panorama  of  vivid  mental  pictures,  an  acquaintance  with 
some  of  the  heroes  and  patriots  of  the  ancient  world,  a  dawning 
consciousness  of  our  heritage  from  the  past,  the  study  would  be 


ANCIKNT   HISTORY 


163 


worth  while.  Somewhat  more  than  a  mental  picture  gallery  how- 
ever may  reasonably  be  expected.  The  problems  appearing  in 
the  ancient  development  of  popular  governments  are  comparatively 
simple  if  translated  into  modern  terms,  and  running  comparisons 
with  modern  movements  not  only  help  to  an  understanding  of 
ancient  politics  but  stimulate  interest  in  present  civic  conditions. 
The  transition  from  the  more  or  less  local  patriotic  treatment  of 
history  in  the  elementary  grades  to  the  comprehensive  study  of 
peoples  far  distant  in  time  and  place  will  be  made  easier  to  the 
pupil  if  the  teacher  make  early  and  full  use  of  maps,  pictures, 
stereopticon  slides  and  standard  guidebooks.  One  is  not  likely 
here  to  err  by  excess.  The  wealth  of  illustrative  material  leaves 
slight  excuse  for  faint  or  grossly  inaccurate  mental  pictures  of 
ancient  life. 


8  I 

The  oriental 
nations. 


II 

Ancient  Hellas: 
early  develop- 
ment.  2ooo(?)- 
750  B.C. 

Ill 
State  and 
national 
development  in 
Greece  to  the 
foreign  wars, 
750-500  B.C. 


1  Introduction:    scope  and  course  of  ancient 
history. 

2  Egypt,  5ooo(?)-525  B.C. 

3  The  Tigris-Euphrates  valley,  5000  or  ear- 
lier-538  B.C. 

4  Syria  (I)  The  Phenicians. 

5  Syria  (II)  The  Hebrews. 

6  Media  and  Persia,  85o(?)~5i4  b.c. 

7  Summary  and  review  of  the  oriental  na- 
[  tions. 

f    8  The  land  and  the  Aegean  basin, 

j    9  The  people:  migration  and  expansion. 

J  10  The  Epic  or  "Homeric"  age,  1000-750  b.c 
j  ( app  roxim  ately ) . 

I  11  "Greek  reconstruction  of  early  history." 

[12  The  states,  and  the  beginnings  of  leagues. 

f  13  Age  of  colonial  enterprise. 

14  Order  of  political  evolution. 

I  15  Growth  of  Sparta:  a  military  aristocracy. 

-{16  Growth  of  Athens :  progress  toward  democ- 
|  racy. 

I  17  Intellectual  progress  of  Hellas,  500  b.c 

(_  18  Bonds  of  union. 


xThe  following  general  surveys,  and  outlines    of   ancient    European   and 
American  history  were  copyrighted  1901  and  1904  by  Walter  H.  dishing. 


164 


NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 


General  survey  of  the  field  (continued) 


*»  0) 

C  X 

4J  0) 

o  . 

U  O 

a,  C 


IV 

Foreign  wars  of 
the  Greeks: 
independence. 
560-479  b.  c. 

V 
The  preeminence 
of   Athens,  479- 
431  B.C. 


VI 

Wars  between 
the  Greek  states: 
a  century  of 
strife,  461-362 
B.C.;  the  Mace- 
donian invasion. 


VII 
The  empire  of 
Alexander ; 
"The  mingling 
of  the  East  and 
West.** 
336-146  B.C. 


VIII 
Early  Rome; 
and  the  Roman 
republic  to  its 
supremacy  in 
Italy. 
753(?)-264  B.C. 


IX 

Rome  becomes 
supreme  in  the 
Mediterranean 
basin,  264-133 

B.C. 


r  19 

j  20 

1 2i 
i  22 

f23 

I 

I 
1*5 

f26 

27 
28 
29 

I 
31 

32 
.33 

f34 
I 


35 


[36 

r  37 

138 

39 
40 


I  41 

42 

43 
44 

[  45 
46 


I 


Lydian  and  Persian  conquests  in  Asia 
Minor. 

Scythian  expedition  and  Ionic  revolt. 

The  Persian  invasion,  492-479  B.C. 

"The  Punic  invasion,"  485-480  B.C.:  Car- 
thaginians in  Sicily. 

The  Delian league  and  the  Athenian  empire, 
477-461  B.C. 

The  Periclean  age  and  the  Athenian  democ- 
racy, 461-431  B.C. 

Intellectual  life ;  the  Athenian  genius. 

The  Athenian  attempt  at  land  empire,  461- 

445  B.C. 
The  Peloponnesian  War,  431-404  B.C. 
The  new  learning. 

The  hegemony  of  Sparta,  404-371  B.C. 
The  attempted  hegemony  of  Thebes,  371- 

362  B.C. 
The   Western   Greeks,    410-300    B.C.    (ap- 
proximately). 

Literature  and  art,  400-350  B.C. 
The  rise  of  Macedon,  359-336  B.C. 

The  career  of  Alexander:  conquests,  char- 
acter, and  achievements.     336-323  b.c. 

The  Hellenistic  period:  disintegration  of 
Alexander's  empire;  the  Hellenistic  king- 
doms and  Hellenistic  culture. 323-146  b.c. 

Greece  to  Roman  intervention;  attempts 
at  federal  government.     280-200  b.c. 

The  land  and  the  people. 

Early  Rome :  sources  of  our  knowledge ;  the 
legends  and  their  value. 

Regal  Rorfle:  government,  religion,  and 
society. 

The  early  republic:  struggle  between  the 
classes;  triumph  of  the  plebeians.  5o9(?)- 
286  B.C. 

The  early  republic:  the  establishment  of 
Rome's  supremacy  in  Latium;  wars  with 
its  neighbors.     5o9(?)~338  b.c. 

The  conquest  of  Italy :  wars  with  the  Sam- 
nites  and  Greeks;  organization.  338- 
264  B.C. 

The  struggle  with  Carthage  for  Sicily :  the 
First  Punic  War,  264-241  b.c. 

"The  extension  of  Italy  to  its  natural  boun- 
daries"; wars  in  Africa  and  Spain.  241- 
218  B.C. 

The  struggle  between  Rome  and  Carthage 
for  the  supremacy  in  the  West :  the  Second 
and  Third  Punic  Wars.     218-133  b.c. 

Rome  becomes  supreme  in  the  eastern  Medi- 
terranean: conquest  of  Greece  and  Asia. 
216-133  B.C. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY 


l6  = 


15 


f47 
48 


X 


The  ancient  world 
under  Roman  rule 
during  the  change^ 
from  the  republic  j 
to  the  monarchy 
133-31  B.C. 


I 


The  organization  of  Rome's  foreign  con- 
quests :  the  provincial  system. 

The  effects  of  conquests  and  the  provincial 
system  on  society,  politics,  and  manners.     | 

The  revolutionary  attempts  at  reform  under; 
the  Gracchi,  133-121  b.c. 

"The  rule  of  the  restoration";  victories  of 
Marius;  Social  War.     121-88  b.c. 

The  struggle  between  Marius  and  Sulla;  rees- 
tablishment  of  senatorial  rule.     88-79  B.C. 

Pompey  and  Caesar:  affairs  in  the  East  and: 
at  Rome;  Caesar  in  Gaul;  Civil  War.1 
79-48  B.C. 

The  rule  of  Caesar,  48-44  b.c. 

The  struggle  for  the  succession,  44-3 1  b.c. 

Roman  culture  and  society  in  the  "Cicer- 
onian age." 


The  ancient  world 
under  the  Romans 
empire,  3 1  b.c. -3  7  5 

A.D. 


f  56  The  establishment  of   the  empire:   constitu- 
tion; frontiers.     31  B.c-14  A.D. 
I  57  The  Julian  and  Flavian  Caesars,  14-96  a.  d. 

58  The  Roman  Empire  under  the  Good  Em- 
perors, 96-180  A.D. 

59  The  Roman  empire  under  the  Soldier  Em- 
perors, 180-284  A.D. 

60  The  Roman  Empire  under  the  Absolute  Em- 

perors, 284-375  A.D. 
[61  The  rise  and  triumph  of  Christianity. 


XII 

The  transition 

period     from     an-  j 
cient  to  medieval 
history,      376-800 

A.D. 


f  62  The  invasions,  and  the  fall  of  the  Western 
Empire,  376-476  a.d. 

63  The  West:   continued  invasions,  and  forma- 
tion  of   Germanic   states.     476-774   a.d. 

64  The  East:     one  Emperor  (Constantinople); 
anewprophet.     476-732  a.d. 

65  "The  rise  of  the  Christian  Church." 

66  The  growth  of  the  Frankish  power:  a  new 

Emperor.     486-800  a.d. 

67  Retrospect,  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Rhine 


Outline  of  ancient  history 
I  The  oriental  nations. 

1   Introduction:    scope  and  course  of  ancient  history. 

a  Races  of  men.  (1)  Difficulty  of  determining  original  and 
secondary  races.  (2)  Philology  and  history.  (3)  Arbi- 
trary classification  by  color. 

b  Caucasian  or  white  race ;  probable  mixed  origin  and  assumed 
subdivisions. 

c  Location  and  progress  of  the  historic  nations :  east  to  west. 

d  Arbitrary  divisions  of  ancient  history:  oriental,  classical, 
and  Germanic  periods. 


1 66  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Geographic  ideas  of  the  ancients. 
B  Physical  geography  of  the  East. 
C  Relative  value  of  historic  studies. 

2  Egypt,  5°o°(?)-525  b.c. 

a  The  Nile  region,     (i)  Physical  features  and  their  influence. 

(2)  Remains  of  ancient  civilization. 
b  The  people  and  their  political  history.    (1)  Supposed  origin. 

(2)  Political  development:  Pharaohs  of  Memphis;  Pharaohs 
of  Thebes;  the  New  Empire — Sais.  (3)  Successive  invasions 
of  Egypt. 

c  Civilization.  (1)  Classes  and  occupations;  early  strikes; 
political    corruption.      (2)    Arts,    sciences,    and    literature. 

(3)  Religion. 

d  Special  contributions  to  European  progress. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Accession  of  Psammetichus. 
B  Inundations  and  sources  of  the  Nile. 
[    C  Obelisks. 

D  Ancient  and  modern  irrigation  systems. 
E  The  Sphinx. 
F        F  Sources  of  Egyptian  history. 

3  The  Tigris-Euphrates  Valley,  5000  or  earlier-538  B.C. 

a  The  land.  (1)  The  two  rivers  and  their  influence.  (2)  Sources, 
remains,  and  relative  antiquity  of  civilization. 

b  The  people.  (1)  Supposed  origin.  (2)  Cities:  Ur,  Nineveh, 
Babylon.  (3)  Successive  empires  and  wars:  Chaldean  (3800- 
1250   b.c);    Assyrian    (1250-606   b.c);    Babylonian    (606- 

538    B.C.). 
c  Civilization.   (1)   Classes  and  industries:  mode  of  life.    (2)  Arts 

and  sciences.     (3)  Religion  and  literature. 
d  Special  contributions  to  European  culture. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 

B   The  long  duel  between  Babylon  and  Nineveh. 
C   The  uses  of  clay  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  culture. 
D  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Daniel. 
E   Sennacherib  and  Hezekiah. 
F  Capture  of  Samaria. 

G   City  of  Babylon  according  to  ancient  accounts. 
R  Capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus. 
/    The  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon,  and  the  walls. 
J    The  fifth  chapter  of  Daniel. 


ANCIENT   HISTORY  167 

4  Syria  (I)  The  Phenicians. 

a  The  land  and  the  people,   (i)  Origin  and  character.  (2)  Cities: 

Tyre,  Sidon. 
b  Enterprises  and  influence.    (1)  Commerce:    sea  routes   and 

colonies,  Carthage.     (2)  Dissemination  of  arts  and  alphabet. 

5  Syria    (II)  The  Hebrews. 

a  The   people   and   their   homes.     (1)  Origin    and   character. 

(2)  Successive    locations:     nomadic    life,    Egypt,    Caanan. 

(3)  Political   development:    patriarchs,   judges,    kings,   the 
two  kingdoms,  the  captivities,  the  restoration. 

b  Religion,  literature  and  world  influence. 

It  is  suggested  to  the  teacher  that  helpful  studies  of  early  patriarchal  life 
may  be  made  in  the  story  of  Abraham,  and  of  tribal  government  in  the 
record  of  the  judges. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  exaltation  of  Tyre. 

B  The  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
C   Return  of  the  Hebrews  from  Babylon. 
D  Idolatry  among  the  Hebrews. 
E  The  sanitary  features  of  the  Mosaic  law. 
F  The  Levites. 

G   Siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus. 
H  Oriental  features  in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon. 

6  Media  and  Persia,  85o(?)~5i4  b.c. 

A  very  general  view  here;  more  in  detail  under  Greece. 

a  The  land  and  the  people.  (1)  Origin  and  relations  with  neigh- 
bors. (2)  Kings  and  their  conquests:  military  development. 
(3)  Political  organization  under  Darius. 

b  Civilization.  (1)  Art.  (2)  Religion  and  literature.  (3)  Mor- 
als. 

c  Persia's  contribution  to  European  progress. 

7  Summary  and  review  of  oriental  nations. 

a  General  features  of  oriental  history:  government,  religion, 
economic  life,  science  and  arts,  existing  remains. 

b  Comparisons  and  contrasts  of  the  Nile  and  Euphrates  cultures 
(by  topics  a,  b,  etc.,  and  subtopics  already  given  in  sections 
2  and  3). 

c  The  blending  of  the  two  cultures.  (1)  Entry  into  Egypt 
through  Hyksos  and  Hebrews.  (2)  Assyria  and  Egypt: 
conquests.      (3)  Syria:  mercantile  exchange. 

d  Transmission  of  culture  to  the  west  .  (1)  Phenicia.  (2)  Asia 
Minor:  Lydia  and  Croesus. 

e  Consolidation:   the  Persian  empire. 


1 68  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Accounts  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  found  in  the  Bible  and  in  Hero- 
dotus. 
B  Condition  of  Persia  after  corruption  had  set  in. 
C   Coinage  of  the  Lydians. 
D  TheHittites:  "The  forgotten  empire. " 
E  The  source  of  Greek  music. 

Map  work: 

The  oriental  nations,  with  boundaries  and  dates. 

II  Ancient  Hellas:  early  development  2ooo(?)~75o  B.C. 

8  The  land  and  the  Aegean  basin. 

a  Physiography,  (i)  Diversity  of  features.  (2)  Climate  and 
products.  (3)  Contrasts  with  seats  of  Eastern  culture 
already  studied.  (4)  Geographic  advantages,  and  influence 
of  the  land  on  the  people. 

b  Political  divisions.  (1)  States  of  the  mainland.  (2)  The 
Island  states,  "Stepping-stones." 

Map  work: 

Two  outline  maps  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  the  Aegean  and 
Black  seas,  and  Asia  Minor;  one  to  show  the  physical 
features,  the  other  to  be  kept  as  a  progressive  historical 
map  throughout  the  study  of  Greece. 

9  The  people:  migration  and  expansion. 

Much  of  this  is   still  debatable   ground,  and  opinions  are  not  settled; 
new  light  is  constantly  coming  from  excavations,  specially  in  Crete. 
a  "Pelasgians." 
b  Early  and  later  Aegean  culture  as  shown  by  archeology: 

Tiryns  and  Mycenae  (3d  and  2d  millennium  B.C.). 
c  Conquests  by  Greeks,  coming  in  waves,  1500  B.C.  on;  fusion, 

expansion. 
d  Oriental  influence,  real  and  mythical. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  ancient  palace. 
B   The  life  work  of  Dr  Schliemann. 
C   Early  peoples  of  Greece  according  to  Herodotus  and  Thucydides. 

10  The  epic  or  "Homeric"  age,  1000-700  B.C.  (approximately). 
a  The  source — Homer:  historical  and  literary  value. 

b  Social  and  political  organization:  family  and  government. 

c  Religion. 

d  The  Trojan  War  and  the  return  of  the  chiefs. 

e  The  Dorian  invasion,  and  the  settlement  of  Asia  Minor. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  169 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Early  Greek  art. 

B   Homeric  life  as  pictured  in  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  furnishes  many 
valuable  topics  in  source  work. 

11  "  Greek  reconstruction  of  early  history." 
a  Genealogy:  Hellenes  and  subdivisions. 

b  Legends  of  local  heroes:    Heracles,  Minos,  Theseus,  Jason, 

Oedipus. 
c  The  Hesiodic  poems  (specially  The  Theogony). 
d  Chronology. 

12  The  states  and  the  beginnings  of  leagues. 
a  The  thriving  city  centers  before  700  b.c. 
b  The  city  state. 

c  Amphictyonies. 

Map  work: 

On  an  outline  map  indicate  by  means  of  colors  the  Delian  and 
Delphian  leagues.    Include  also  principal  city  centers. 

Ill  State  and  national  development  in  Greece  to  the  foreign  wars, 
750-500  B.C. 

13  Age  of  colonial  enterprise. 

General  accounts  are  all  long  and  detailed  and  need  to  be  cut.     This 
lesson  may  be  well  treated  by  classroom  drill  on  a  large  board  map. 
a  Causes  of  colonization. 
b  Character  and  organization  of  a  colony;    connection  with 

mother  city. 
c  Chief  centers. 

Map  work: 

The  Mediterranean  basin,  with  principal  colonies,  distinguish- 
ing Ionian,  Aeolian,  Dorian,  and  Achaean. 

14  Order  of  political  evolution. 

a  Monarchy  to  aristocracy  (oligarchy). 
b  Tyrannies. 

c  Democracies,  or  reversion  to  oligarchies. 
d  Growth  of  popular  discontent. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Polycrates. 
B   The  wooing  of  Agariste. 
C   The  Sacred  War. 
D  Sicily.  Naukratis  and  Cyrene. 

15  Growth  of  Sparta:  a  military  aristocracy. 
a  Place  and  people. 

b  Institutions  and  government ;  myth  of  Lycurgus. 


170  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

c  System  and  aim  of  education ;  mode  of  life. 
d  Messenian  wars ;  the  Peloponnesian  League. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Lycurgus. 

B   War  songs  of  Tyrtaeus. 
C   Spartan  women. 

Map  work: 

Peloponnesus,  showing  Spartan  sphere  of  influence,  500  b.c, 

16  Growth  of  Athens.    Progress  toward  democracy 
a  Place  and  people ;  mythic  monarchy. 

b  Eupatrid  rule:   Cylon  and  Draco. 

c  Solon  "the  Wise." 

d  Tyranny:   Pisistratus  and  the  Pisistratidae. 

e  Cleisthenes's  changes. 

17  Intellectual  progress  of  Hellas  to  500  b.c. 
a  Art. 

b  Poetry:   the  lyric  age. 

c  Philosophy. 

d  Deepening  religious  sense. 

18  Bonds  of  union. 

a  Common  language  and  ancestry. 
b  Religion:  temples,  oracles,  festivals. 
c  Amphictyonies  and  political  leagues. 
d  Greek  games. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Greek  oracles. 

B   The  Pantheon  of  Homeric  and  historic  times. 
C  The  Athenian  Constitution. 
D  Solon  and  Croesus. 
E   Eleusis  and  the  mysteries. 
F   Delphi  and  its  priesthood. 

IV  Foreign  wars  of  the  Greeks :  independence.    560-479  B.C. 

1 9  Lydian  and  Persian  conquests  in  Asia  Minor. 
Review  section  7  d  (2),  70;  and  section  6. 

a  Croesus. 

b  Cyrus  and  Cambyses. 

20  Scythian  expedition  and  Ionic  revolt. 

a  Darius;  the  northern  frontier ;  the  Hellenic  tyrants. 
b  Sardis,  Lade,  Miletus;  results. 

Map  work: 

The  chief  Ionian  cities. 

21  Persian  invasion,  492-479  b.c. 

There  is  still  danger  of  spending  too  much  time  on  wars. 


ANCIENT    HISTORY  I7I 

a  Causes;   resources  of  Greeks  and  Persians;   expeditions  sent 

by  Darius  (Marathon,  490  B.C.). 
b  The    10    years    respite,    490-480    B.C.:     Themistocles    and 

Aristides. 
c  The  third  expedition:  Xerxes  (Thermopylae  and  Salamis,  480 

B.C.;  Plataea  and  Mycale,  479  B.C.);  results. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  Alcmaeonidae. 

B   Monuments  of  victory  erected  by  the  Greeks. 
C   The  battle  of  Salamis  from  Greek  authors. 
D  Cambyses  and  Darius. 
E  The  Scythians. 
F  Xerxes 's  preparations. 
G   "The  Wars  of  Liberation. " 
H  Aristides  and  Themistocles. 

22  "The  Punic  invasion,"  485-480  B.C.:    the  Carthaginians  in 

Sicily. 
a  "Western  Greece  ":   chief  centers  and  previous  history. 
b  Carthage:  understanding  with  Persia. 
c  Gelon:   Himera  and  results. 

V  The  preeminence  of  Athens,  479-431  B.C. 

23  Delian  League  and  the  Athenian  empire,  477-461  b.c. 
a  Themistocles  and  the  fortification  of  Athens. 

b  Aristides  and  the  leadership  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks. 

c  Cimon  and  naval  victories:  the  league  becomes  an  empire. 

d  Political  parties  at  Athens;  attitude  toward  Sparta. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   For  debate :  the  ethics  of  the  Athenian  policy. 

B  The  government  of  Athens  during  the  period  of  Athenian  ascend- 
ency. 
C   Pausanias. 
D  Athens's  treatment  of  subject  states. 

Map  work: 

The  Athenian  empire  at  its  greatest  extent,  about  456  b.c. 

24  The  Periclean  age  and  the  Athenian  democracy,  461-431  b.c. 
a  Foreign  policy:   Egypt,  Persia,  Cyprus. 

b  Government:  magistrates  and  assemblies. 

c  Education:  the  aim  and  the  means. 

d  Social  life. 

e  Pericles  the  man :  his  character  and  influence. 

25  Intellectual  life;  the  Athenian  genius. 

a  Art:  beautification  of  the  city;  sculpture. 
b  Literature:   drama  and  history. 
c  Philosophy. 


1J2  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Map  work: 

Athens,  with  her  fortifications,  and  principal  buildings. 

VI  Wars  between  the  Greek  states:    a  century  of  strife,  461-362 
B.C. ;  the  Macedonian  invasion. 

26  Athenian  attempt  at  land  empire,  461-445  B.C. 
a  Pericles's  policy  and  alliances. 

b  Wars  with  Peloponnesians  and  Boeotians. 
c  Thirty  Years  Truce. 

Map  work: 

Athenian  empire  and  the  states  allied  with  Athens  and  with 
Sparta,  431  B.C. 

27  Peloponnesian  War,  431-404  B.C. 
a  Causes:  resources  of  each  side. 

b  Periods.  (1)  Indecisive,  431-421  B.C.:  Cleon  and  Brasidas. 
(2)  Sicilian  expedition  (with  interval  preceding),  421-413 
B.C.:  Nicias  and  Alcibiades:  (3)  Persian  activity,  413-404 
B.C.:   Alcibiades  and  Lysander. 

c  Results;    political    condition    of   Hellas. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Extracts  from  funeral  oration  delivered  by  Pericles. 
B  Thucydides's  account  of  the  Sicilian  expedition. 

Map  work: 

The  Syracusan  campaign. 

28  The  new  learning. 
a  Socrates. 

b  The  Drama   (Euripides  and  Aristophanes). 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Alcibiades  as  an  illustration  of  his  times. 
B   Sophists  and  rhetoricians. 
C   Thucydides  and  Herodotus  compared. 

29  The  hegemony  of  Sparta,  404-371  B.C. 
a  Policy  of  Sparta:   Lysander. 

b  Wars:      Agesilaus.     (1)      Persian:     Anabasis;     Antalcidas. 

(2)    Domestic:     Peloponnesus,    Chalcidice,    new    Athenian 

league,  Leuctra. 
c  Estimate  of  Spartan  power,  and  reasons  for  her  failure  to 

secure  Hellenic  unity. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  173 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Contrast  and  comparison  between  the  first  and  second  leagues  of 

Athens. 
B   Contrast  and  comparison  between  the  rule  of  the  Four  Hundred  and 

the  rule  of  the  Thirty. 
C   Lysander. 
D  Agesilaus. 
E  Comparison  of  Sparta  and  Athens. 

30  The  attempted  hegemony  of  Thebes,  371-362  b.c. 
a  Leuctra. 

b  Policy  of  Epaminondas:   Peloponnesus,  Persia,  Athens. 
c  Mantinea  and  the  end  of  Theban  leadership. 

31  The  western  Greeks,  410-300  b.c.  (approximately). 

I     .    a  Outline  of  the  Sicilian  history  in  review  [see  section  22]. 
b  Dionysius  1. 
c  Timoleon,  the  Liberator. 

32  Literature  and  art,  400-350  B.C. 

a  "From  poetry  to  prose."  (1)  History:  (compare  Xenophon 
with  Herodotus  and  Thucydides).  (2)  Oratory:  Lysias  and 
Isocrates.     (3)  Philosophy:   Plato. 

b  Art. 

Section  32  may  be  treated  after  33,  and  may  then  include  Demosthenes 
and  Aristotle,  as  well  as  Lysippus. 

33  The  rise  of  Macedon,  359-336  B.C. 
a  Hellenes  and  Macedonians. 

b  Philip:   training,  character,  aggressions. 

c  "The  end  of  Greek  freedom,"  338-336  b.c.  (i)  Chaeronea, 
338  B.C.  (2)  Relations  established  by  Congress  of  Corinth 
(with  comparison  of  Congress  of  Corinth,  481  b.c).  (3)  His- 
tory of  the  idea  of  Hellenic  conquest  of  Persia,  Cimon  to 
Philip. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  development  of  military  formation  among  the  Greeks. 
B   Pelopidas. 
C   Epaminondas. 
D  Timoleon. 

E  The  Athens  of  Demosthenes. 
F  Extracts  from  the  orations  of  Demosthenes. 

VII  The  Empire  of  Alexander ;  "The  Mingling  of  the  East  and  West." 
336-146  B.C. 

34  The  career  of  Alexander,  336-323  b.c. 
a  Early  life. 

b  The  conquest  of  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt, 


174  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

c  The  conquest  of  Persia  and  the  farther  East. 

d  The  character  of  Alexander;  estimate  of  his  work. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  military  system  of  Alexander. 
B   Special  battles. 
C  The  Persian  empire. 
D  Alexander's  siege  of  Tyre. 
E  Alexander's  conquest  of  Egypt 
F  The  murder  of  Clitus. 
G  The  mutiny  of  Alexander's  army. 
H  Alexander's  plans. 
/    Death  and  character~of  Alexander. 

Map  work: 

On  an  outline  map  trace  the  route  of  Alexander's  march, 
marking  his  battles  and  the  most  important  cities  founded 
by  him. 

35  The  Hellenistic  period,  323-146  B.C. 

a  The  disintegration  of  Alexander's  empire:     the  wars  of  the 

Diadochi,  323-280  B.C. 
b  The   Hellenistic   kingdoms.    (1)  Egypt  and  the    Ptolemies. 

(2)  Syria  and  the  Seleucidae. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Invasion  of  the  Gauls. 
B   Rhodes  and  Pergamon. 
C   Hellenism:  society,  literature,  and  art. 

36  Greece  to  Roman  intervention;  attempts  at  federal  govern- 

ment 280-200  B.C. 
a  Achean  League  (Aratus). 
b  Its  conflict  with  Sparta  (Cleomenes)  leads  first  to  Macedonian, 

then  to  Roman,  intervention. 

VIII  Early  Rome;    and  the  Roman  republic  to  its  supremacy  in 
Italy.     753  W-264  B.C. 

37  The  land  and  the  people. 

a  The  land:  the  peninsula  of  Italy  and  its  relations  to  the 
Mediterranean  basin;    climate  and  products  of  Italy. 

b  The  people:  remnants  of  early  peoples;  the  Italian  stocks; 
the  invading  nations  (Etruscans,  Gauls,  Greeks,  and  Pheni- 
cians) . 

Map  work: 

On  outline  maps  mark:  (1)  mountain  system;  (2)  rivers; 
(3)  the  political  divisions 


ANCIENT   HISTORY  \J$ 

Topics  jor  advanced  pupils: 
A    The  Etruscans. 
B   The  Greek  colonies  in  Italy. 
C  The  Gauls. 

38  Early  Rome:   sources  of  our  knowledge. 
a  The  legends  and  their  value. 

b  Buildings  and  other  remains.    (1)  The  walls.     (2)  The  cloaca. 

39  Regal  Rome:   organization. 

a  The  government:    king,  senate,  assemblies. 
b  The  people:   patricians,  plebeians. 
c  Religion. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils : 
The  Roman  family. 

40  The  early  republic :  the  struggle  between  the  classes ;  triumph 

of  the  plebeians.    509(?)-286  b.c. 

a  The  establishment  of  the  Republic. 

b  The  economic  and  social  condition  of  the  plebeians,  leading 
to  the  establishment  of  the  tribunate. 

c  The  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables. 

d  The  admission  of  the  plebeians  to  the  magistracies  (Licinian 
laws) . 

e  The  admission  of  the  plebeians  to  the  assemblies  (Hortensian 
law). 

/  An  outline  of  the  Roman  constitution  in  286  b.c:  magis- 
trates, senate,  assemblies,  functions  of  each  (use  textbook 
and  dictionaries  of  antiquities). 

41  The  early  republic:    the  establishment  of  Rome's  supremacy 

in  Latium.    509(?)~338  b.c. 
a  Wars  with  neighboring  nations,  Volscians,  Aequians,   and 

Etruscans. 
b  The  invasion  of  the  Gauls  and  the  sack  of  Rome. 
c  Rome  and  the  Latins. 

42  The  conquest  and  organization  of  Italy,  338-264  b.c 
a  The  Samnite  wars,  343-264  b.c 

b  The  war  with  the  Greeks  (Pyrrhus),  280-272  b.c 
c  The  organization  of  Italy:   colonies;  roads. 
d  The  military  system. 

Map  work: 

On  outline  map  mark  (1)  the  following  colonies:  Ostia, 
Norba,  Placentia,  Cremona,  Ariminum,  Luceria,  Venusia, 
Beneventum,  Paestum,  Parma.  (2)  the  Roman  roads 
before  133  b.c 


I76  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  colonial  system 
B  Roman  road  making. 

C  Livy's  account  of  the  secession  of  the  plebeians. 
D  Livy's  account  of  the  Decern virate. 
E  Battle  of  Caudine  pass.  ! 

F  Roman  army. 

IX  Rome  becomes  supreme  in  the  Mediterranean  basin,  264-133  B.C. 

43  The  struggle  with  Carthage  for  Sicily:   the  first  Punic  War, 

264-241  B.C. 
a  Carthage. 
b  The  war. 
V  '    c  Sicily,  the  first  Roman  province 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  victory  of  Duilius. 
B  The  defeat  at  Drepana. 
C  The  fleet  built  by  private  subscription. 
D  The  treaty  at  the  end  of  the  First  Punic  War. 

44  "The  extension  of  Italy  to  its  natural  boundaries";   wars  in 

Africa  and  Spain.    241-218  B.C. 
a  Wars  of  Rome  in  the  North  (Gallic  and Jllyrian) ,  229-222  B.C. 
b  Sardinia  and  Corsica. 
c  Wars  of  the  Carthaginians  in  Africa  and  Spain  (Hamilcar). 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  acquisition  of  Sardinia. 
B  The  siege  of  Saguntum. 

45  The  struggle  between  Rome  and  Carthage  for  the  supremacy  in 

the  West:  the  second  and  third  Punic  Wars.    218-133  B.C. 
a  Hannibal's  march  into  Italy. 
b  The  war  in  Italy.     (1)  Successes  of  Hannibal:    three  great 

battles  won;  three  great  cities  captured.     (2)  Final  success 

of  the  Romans;  loyalty  of  the  Latins. 
c  The  war  in  Africa  and  in  Spain.    (1)  The  Scipios  in  Spain 

218-212  b.c.    (2)  The  battle  of  Zama,  202  B.C.  (3)  The  treaty. 
d  The  establishment  of  the  supremacy  of  Rome  in  the  western 

Mediterranean,  201-133  b.c.     (i)  The  Third  Punic  War,  149- 

146  b.c.     (2)  Subjugation  of  Spain,  133  b.c. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  character  of  Hannibal. 
B  Hannibal's  passage  of  the  Alps. 
C  The  battle  of  Trasimenus. 
D  The  battle  of  Cannae. 

E  The  treaty  at  the  end  of  Second  Punic  War 
F  The  siege  of  Syracuse. 


ANCIENT   HISTORY  177 

Map  work: 

Trace  the  route  of  Hannibal's  invasion. 

46  Rome  becomes  supreme  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  216- 

133  B.C. 
a  The    acquisition  of  Greece.     (1)   The  condition  of  Greece. 

(2)  The  First  and  Second  Macedonian  Wars  (Cynoscephalae, 

197    B.C.     (3)    The    Third   Macedonian  War,  1 71-168  B.C. 

(4)  Macedonia  a  Roman  province;  destruction  of  Corinth, 

146  B.C. 
b  The   acquisition  of  Asia.    (1)  War  with  Antiochus,  192-189 

B.C.;  settlement  of  the  East.    (2)  The  kingdom  of  Pergamon, 

133  B.C. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
The  Eastern  States  and  their  rulers. 

X  The  ancient  world  under  Roman  rule  during  the  change  from  the 
republic  to  the  monarchy,  133-31  B.C. 

47  Organization  of  Rome's  foreign  conquests. 

a  The  provinces  to  133  B.C.  enumerated:  Sicily, Sardinia  and 
Corsica,  Hither  Spain,  Farther  Spain,  Illyricum,  Macedonia 
and  Achaia,  Africa,  Asia. 

b  The  client  states  enumerated:  Numidia,  Libya,  Egypt. 

c  The  provincial  system. 

Map  work: 

Mark  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  provinces  in  133  B.C. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  provincial  governor  of  the  worst  type  as  described  by  Cicero. 

48  The   effects    of    conquests    and    the   provincial   system   on 

society,  politics,  and  manners. 
a  Agrarian  conditions. 

b  The  classes:  optimates,  populares,  equites. 
c  The  government:   senate,  magistrates,  assemblies. 
d  The  introduction  of  Hellenism;   art;  poetry. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Cato  the  Elder. 
B  Scipio  Africanus 
C  Scipio  Aemilianus. 
D  The  drama. 

E  Introduction  of  foreign  luxuries. 
F  Supremacy  of  the  senate. 

49  Revolutionary  attempts  at  reform  under  the  Gracchi,  133- 

121   B.C. 


I78  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

a  Tiberius  Gracchus:  attempts  at  agrarian  reform,  133  B.C. 
b  Gaius  Gracchus:    attempts  at  a  revolution  in  the  Constitu- 
tion, 123  B.C. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  position  of  slaves. 
B  Lives  of  Tiberius  and  Gaius  Gracchus. 

50  "The  rule  of  the  Restoration,"  121-88  b.c. 
a  The  war  with  Jugurtha,  111-105  b.c. 

b  The  invasion  of  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  (Marius),  113-101 

b.  c. 
c  Internal  affairs.     (1)  The  rule  of  the  nobles.     (2)  Attempts 

at  reform  by  Saturninus  and  Glaucia  and  by  Drusus. 
d  The  Social  War,  90-88  b.c 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Life  of  Marius. 
B  War  with  Jugurtha. 

51  The  struggle  between  Marius  and  Sulla;  reestablishment  of 

senatorial  rule.    88-79  B-c- 
a  The  revolution  of  Marius  and  Sulpicius,  88  b.c. 
b  The  rule  of  the  Marian  party  (Cinna),  87-84  b.c. 
c  The  struggle  between  the  parties  of  Marius  and  Sulla:  the 

first  civil  war,  84-82  B.C. 
d  The  rule  of  Sulla,  and  the  Sullan  Constitution,  82-79  b.c 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  life  of  Sulla. 
B  The  character  of  Sulla. 

52  Pompey  and  Caesar,  79-48  b.c 

a  Affairs  in  the  East.  (1)  The  condition  of  the  East;  (Mith- 
ridates).  (2)  The  campaigns  of  Sulla,  86-84  B-C  (3)  The 
campaigns  of  Pompey  and  his  reorganization  of  the  East, 
66-63  B.C. 

b  Affairs  at  Rome.  (1)  The  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  66-63 
b.c     (2)  The  first  Triumvirate,  60  b.c 

c  Caesar  in  Gaul,  58-51  b.c  (i)  The  condition  of  Gaul.  (2) 
Caesar's  campaigns.     (3)  Organization  of  conquests. 

d  Civil  war  (Pharsalus,  Zela,  Thapsus,  Munda),  49-48  b.c 

Map  work: 

Mark  the  boundaries  of  the  new  provinces. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Cicero  as  a  public  man. 
B  Character  of  Pompey. 
C  Caesar's  army. 


ANCIENT   HISTORY  179 

D  The  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 
E  Caesar  in  Gaul 

53  The  rule  of  Caesar,  48-44  B.C. 

a  The  condition  of  the  Roman  world 
b  The  reforms  of  Caesar. 
c  The  estimate  of  Caesar. 

54  The  struggle  for  the  succession,  44-31  b.c. 

a  Civil  war:  the  overthrow  of  the  liberators  (Philippi,  42  b.c). 
b  The  rivalry  of  Octavius  and  Antony:  the  West  against  the 
East  (Actium,  31  b.c). 

55  Roman  culture  in  the  "Ciceronian  Age."  i    1 
a  Literature.    (1)  Cicero.     (2)  Sallust.     (3)  Caesar. 

b  Education. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Cicero  as  seen  in  his  letters. 
B  Character  of  Antony. 

XI  The  ancient  world  under  the  Roman  empire,  31  B.C.-375  A.D. 

56  Establishment  of  the  empire,  31  B.c-14  a.d. 

a  The  constitution:   survivals  of  the  republican  system;    the 

princeps;   changes  in  the  government  of  the  provinces  and 

the  city  of  Rome. 
b  The  frontiers.    (1)  The  East.     (2)  Alpine  region.     (3)  The 

Northwest  (Teutoberg  forest,  9  a.d.). 
c  Literature  of  the  Augustan  age.     (1)   Virgil.     (2)   Horace. 

(3)  Livy. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils; 
A  Provinces  under  Augustus. 
B  Augustus  as  a  builder. 
C  Character  of  Augustus. 
D  The  worship  of  the  emperor 

Map  work: 

Mark  the  provinces;    distinguishing  between  the  imperial 
and  the  senatorial. 

57  The  Julian  and  Flavian  Caesars,  14-96  a.d. 

.3  The  constitution:    growth  of  monarchical  ideas. 

b  The  empire.     (1)  The  East.      (2)  The  German  frontier.     (3) 

Britain. 
c  Emperors. 

I  The   condition  of   the  empire  and  society.     (1)  Life  in  the 
towns:  (a)  appearance;  (b)  government;  (c)  amusements 
(d)  Pompeii;  (e)  the  Graffiti;  (/)  country-houses.     (2)  L 
in  the  provinces.     (3)  Travel  and    correspondence. 
Commerce. 


l80  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
B  The  classes  in  the  towns. 
C  The  finances  of  the  towns. 

D  The  education  of  the  Roman  in  imperial  times. 
E  Roman  amusements. 
F  The  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  79  a.  d. 
G  Peculiar  customs  of  the  Romans. 
H  The  burning  of  Rome. 
J  Roman  trade  routes. 

58  The  empire  under  the  ''Good  Emperors",  96-180  a.d. 
a  The  government  and  administration. 

b  Extension  and  consolidation.  (1)  Trajan  (Dacia  and  Meso- 
potamia), 98-117  a.d.  (2)  Hadrian  (travels  and  fortifica- 
tions), 117-38  a.d.  (3)  Marcus  Aurelius  (Marcomanic  War), 
161-80  A.D. 

c  The  condition  of  the  empire  in  the  second  century. 

d  "The  Silver  Age  of  Literature." 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Correspondence  of  Trajan  and  Pliny. 
B  Marcus  Aurelius. 
C  Life  of  Pliny  the  Younger. 
D  Forum  of  Trajan. 
E  Hadrian's  villa  at  Tivoli. 

Map  work: 

Mark  the  additions  of  Trajan.     Indicate  the  fortifications 
of  Hadrian. 

59  The  Roman  empire  under  the  soldier  emperors:   a  century  of 

revolution.     180-284  A-D- 
a  Typical    emperors.      (1)    Septimus    Severus,    193-2 11    a.d. 

(2)  Caracalla  (extension  of  the  Roman  franchise),  211-17  a.d. 

(3)  Elagabalus,  218-22  a.d.     (4)  Aurelian,  270-72  a.d. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  new  Persian  Empire. 
B  The  conquest  of  Palmyra. 
C  The  wall  of  Aurelian. 
D  The  arch  of  Septimius  Severus. 

60  The  Roman  empire  under  the  absolute  emperors,  284-375  a.d. 
a  Absolutism:    Diocletian,  reorganization  of  the  empire. 

b  Const antine,  transfer  of  the  capital  to  Constantinople. 
c  The  provincial  organization. 
d  Bureaucracy  of  officials. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
Society  in  the  fourth  century  a.d. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY  l8l 

Map  work: 

Mark  the  prefectures  and  dioceses. 

6 1  Rise  and  triumph  of  Christianity. 

a  Attitude  of  Roman  government  toward  Christianity. 
b  The  persecutions. 

c  The  triumph  and  establishment  of  the  Church. 
d  The  organization  of  the   Church. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Christianity  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
B  The  contribution  of  Christianity. 
C  The  catacombs. 

XII  Transition  period,  376-800  A.D. 

62  Invasions,  and  the  fall  of  the  western  empire,  376-476  a.d. 
a  The  Germans. 

b  The  invasion  of  the  West  Goths  (Alaric),  376-410  a.d.  ;  sieges 

of  Rome  by  Alaric. 
c  The  invasion  of   the  Vandals  (Geiseric),  378-455  a.d.;   the 

sack  of  Rome. 
d  The  invasion  of  the  Huns  (Attila),  378-453  a.d.;    battle  of 

Chalons,  451  a.d. 
e  The  last  Roman  emperor  in  the  West,  476  a.d. 
/  The  causes  of  the  decline  of  Rome. 
g  The  influence  of  Rome. 

63  The  West:    continued  invasions,  and  formation  of  Germanic 

states,  476-774  a.d. 
a  Condition  of  Europe  in  476  a.d. 
b  Italy:     Ostrogoths,    493-552    a.d.    (Theodoric) ;    Lombards, 

568-774  A.D. 
c  Britain:   the  Anglo-Saxons. 
d  Gaul:   the  Franks. 

e  Spain:  "decaying  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths"  (to  711  a.d.), 
f  Results  of  invasions:    fusion  of  the  two  peoples  (language, 

law). 
Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 

Theodoric. 
Map  work: 

Map  showing  routes  of  migrations  and  final  places  of  settle- 
ment. 

64  The  East:    one  emperor   (Constantinople);    a  new  prophet. 

476-732  A.D. 
a  Justinian:   conquests,  and  codification  of  the  law. 
b  The  rise  of  Mohammedanism :  Mohammed ;  his  religious  sys- 
tem;  Saracen  conquests. 


1 82  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  Iconoclastic  controversy. 
B  B disarms. 

C  The  siege  of  Constantinople  by  the  Saracens. 
D  The  Saracen  conquest  of  Spain. 
E  Important  teachings  of  the  Koran. 

65  "The  rise  of  the  Christian  Church." 

a  Early  organization  of  the  Church ;  growth  of  the  Papal  power 

to  600  A.D. 

b  Differences  and  divisions. 
c  Monasticism. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Pope  Gregory  the  Great. 

B  The  life  of  St  Columban  and  the  work  of  the  Irish  monks. 
C  Influence  of  the  early  Church. 
D  The  Benedictine  rule. 

66  The  growth  of  the  Frankish  power ;  a  new  emperor.     486-800 

A.D. 

a  Clovis  and  the  Merovingians. 

b  The  Carolingians  as  "mayors";    battle  of  Tours,  732  a.d. 

c  The  Carolingians  as  kings ;  Lombardy . 

d  Charlemagne:   the  king  crowned  emperor,  800  a.d. 

Map  work: 

Empire  of  Charlemagne. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Boniface  and  his  work. 
B  The  Salic  law. 
C  The  conversion  of  Clovis  as  told  by  Gregory  of  Tours. 

67  Retrospect,  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Rhine. 


MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY  800-1900  A.  D. 

The  study  of  medieval  history  in  the  high  school  presents  pecu- 
liar difficulties.  Historically  considered  the  Middle  Ages  lie  farther 
from  modern  life  than  the  age  of  the  Antonines  or  the  age  of  Pericles. 
Both  teacher  and  student  find  but  little  in  present  day  life  which 
can  be  used  to  make  clear  the  life  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  United 
States  the  church  and  the  university  are  the  only  great  medieval 
institutions  which  have  survived,  and  these  are  so  different  in  their 
present  condition  that  we  get  only  a  poor  illustration  of  their  place 
in  medieval  times. 


EUROPEAN   HISTORY  1 83 

Therefore,  because  the  student  gets  so  little  apperceptive  material 
for  this  work  from  his  own  environment  the  teacher  should  make 
special  efforts  to  furnish  the  students'  imagination  with  an  abund- 
ance of  concrete  material  out  of  which  rich  and  full  mental  pic- 
tures can  be  constructed.  Typical,  as  well  as  important  events, 
customs,  and  institutions  should  be  fully  and  vividly  described. 
The  best  means  of  producing  mental  pictures  are  the  well  written 
text,  carefully  selected  references,  the  teachers'  descriptions,  pic- 
tures, photographs  of  medieval  remains  and  of  paintings  of  medieval 
scenes.  Again,  this  strange  history  may  be  made  more  real  and 
interesting  by  relating  it,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  lives  of  the  great 
men  of  that  age. 

It  is  well  to  make  clear  how  feudalism  made  national  life  almost 
impossible  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  how,  in  the  absence  of  the  print- 
ing press  and  of  means  of  rapid  communication,  national  feeling 
grew  slowly  in  a  people  scattered  over  great  areas. 

In  passing  from  the  Middle  Ages  to  modern  life  the  student  must 
not  only  keep  in  mind  the  great  events  which  marked  the  transi- 
tion, but  also  the  change  in  ideas  and  movements  which  accom- 
panied the  transition.  Such  a  view  will  show  the  student  that  the 
ending  of  one  period  and  the  beginning  of  another  can  not  be  accur- 
ately marked  by  a  date,  but  that  the  germs  of  the  new  period  are 
in  the  old. 

Modern  history  compels  the  student  to  carry  in  mind  two  series 
of  facts,  the  events  belonging  to  the  development  of  the  leading 
European  nations  and  the  movements  common  to  Europe  as  a 
whole.  As  the  student  makes  his  way  into  the  18th  and  19th  cen- 
turies industrial  conditions  and  commercial  rivalry  become  more 
and  more  important. 

In  order  to  preserve  continuity  in  the  study  the  student  must 
constantly  trace  events  and  movements  back  to  their  roots.  In 
order  to  mark  progress  in  history  the  student  must  constantly 
point  out  the  differences  between  the  period  under  discussion  and 
earlier  periods. 


184 


NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 


a £ 

g  K 
c  a, 


General  survey  of  the  field 


c  3 

82 


i5 


I 
The  Carolingian 
empire  and  the 
rise  of  feudalism, 
to  the 
ioth  century. 


II 

The  papacy  and 
the  beginning 
of  the  new 
German-Roman 
empire,  to  1254. 


Ill 

The  formation 
of  France,  to 
1328. 

IV 
The  East  and 
the  crusades 
1096-1270. 


V 

Christian  and 

feudal 

civilization. 


VI 

The  era  of  the 
Renaissance, 
14th  and  15  th 
centuries. 


VII 

The  Protestant 
Revolution  and 
the  wars  of 
religion 
1517-1648. 


f    1  The  development  of  the  Christian  church. 
2  The  consolidation  of  the  Frankish  kingdom 
to  768.  T 

I     3  The  wars  and  conquests  of  Charlemagne.  1 

4  The  founding  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,' 

800  A.  D.  1 

5  The  decline  of  the  Carolingian  empire,  and 

the  formation  of  separate  monarchies.  1 

6  The  beginnings  of  feudalism.  2 

7  Germany  and  Italy,  to  the  death  of  Otto 

the  Great,  973. 

8  The  struggle  over  the  right  of  investiture,  to 

1122. 

9  Frederick  1  (Barbarossa),  1152-90.  1 

10  Innocent  3  and  his  position  in  Christen- 

dom, 1198-1216. 

11  Frederick  2   and  the  fall  of  the  Hohen- 

staufen. 

12  The  rise  of  the  Capetian  dynasty,  to  11 80.       1 

13  France  under  Philip,  Augustus  and  St 

Louis,  1180-1270. 
I  14  Philip  the  Fair,  1285-1314,  and  Pope  Boni 
lv  face  8,  1294-1303.  1 

f  15  The  East  before  the  crusades.  1 

f  16  The  first  crusade,  1096-99.  1 

J  1 7  The  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  and  the  second    I 
1  crusade.  1 

I  18  The  third  and  fourth  crusades.  1 

1 19  The  end  of  the  crusades.  1 

f  20  The  church  in  the  13th  century.  1 

I  2 1   Medieval  schools  and  universities.  1 

The  life  of  the  military  classes.  1 

Peasant  life.  1 

Towns  and  town  life.  1 

M  Medieval  commerce.  1 

[id  Germany  and  the  Empire,  1 2 73- 1 493.  I   2 

I  27  France  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries;  the  I 
I  Hundred  Years  War.  2, 

I  28  The  consolidation  of  Spain  into  a  powerful 

monarchy. 
I  29  Political  and  social  conditions  in  Italy  in 
the  14th  and  15th  centuries. 
The  beginning  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy ; 
the  revival  of  learning. 
I  3 1  The  fine  arts  during  the  Renaissance. 

The  age  of  the  great  discoveries  and  inven- 
tions. 
Reforming  movements  of  the  15th  century. 

34  The   eve  of  the  Protestant  revolt  in  Ger- 
many. 

35  The  Lutheran  revolt,  to  1525. 

36  Charles  5  and  the  Protestant  revolt  in  Ger- 
many, 1526-55. 

37  The  Protestants  in  Switzerland,  to  1531. 

38  John  Calvin  and  his  work. 

39  Rise  of  Protestantism  in  France,  to  1572. 

40  France  under  Henry  4. 

41  The  Catholic  reformation  and  the  Jesuits. 

42  The  revolt  of  the  Netherlands,  1 568-1648.        2 
^43  The  Thirty  Years  War,  1618-48.  '  3 


22 
23 
24 
25 


30 

31 
32 

33 


EUROPEAN   HISTORY 


| 

S. 

■3.8 
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General  survey  of  the  field — (concluded) 


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18 


VIII 

The  ascendency 
of  France  and 
the  age  of 
Louis  14. 

IX 
The  rise  of 
Russia,  Prussia, 
and  of  colonial 
interests. 
The  age  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great. 


The  French  Revo- 
lution, 1789-95. 


XI 

Napoleon  Bona- 
parte and  the 
Napoleonic 
wars,  1795-1815. 


XII 

Growth  of  nation- 
ality, democracy, 
and  liberty  in  the 
19  th  century. 


f  44  Richelieu    and    the    establishment     of    the 

absolute  monarchy. 
j  45  Louis  14  and  his  court. 
!  46  The  people;  Colbert  and  his  reforms. 
I  47   Louis  14's  wars, 
f  48  The  formation  of  the  Russian  empire ;  Peter 

the  Great. 

49  The  expansion  of  Russia  in  the  1 8th  century 

50  The  beginnings  of  the  Prussian  state,  1640- 

1740. 

51  Frederick  the  Great,  1740-86. 

52  Frederick  the  Great  in  time  of  peace. 
L  53  The  expansion  of  England. 

f  54  The  abuses  and  evils  of  the  Old  Regime. 

55  Growth  of  a  revolutionary  spirit  before  1789 

56  Louis  16  and  attempts  at  reform. 

57  The  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  and  de- 

struction of  the  Old  Regime. 

58  The  attempt  to  make  a  constitution,  1789-91. 

59  The  failure  of  the  Constitution   and  fall  of 

the  monarchy,    1791-92. 

60  The    first    French  republic   and   the    war 

against  Europe,  1792-93. 

61  The  Reign  of  Terror,  1793-94. 
f  62  France  in  1795. 

63  General    Bonaparte    in    Italy    and    Egypt 

1796-99. 

64  Bonaparte  as  consul,  1799-1804. 

65  The  Napoleonic  empire,  1804. 

66  Napoleon's   campaigns   from   Austerlitz   to 

Tilsit,  1805-7. 

67  The  national  uprisings  against  Napoleon, 

1808-12. 

68  The  downfall  of  Napoleon,  1813-15. 

f  69  Congress  of  Vienna  and  Metternich's  sys- 
tem of  absolutism 

70  Paris  revolutions  of  1830  and  1848 

71  France  under  Napoleon  3   and  the  third 

republic 

72  Unification  of  Italy 

73  Struggle  for  liberty  and  unity  in  Germany, 

1815-58 

74  Foundation  of  the  German  empire  under 

Bismarck  and  William    1    (1858-88) 

75  Austria- Hungary  under  Francis  Joseph  i, 

1848- 

76  Turkey  and  the  Eastern  Question 

77  Development  of  Russia  in  the  19th  century 

78  Expansion  of  Europe 

^  79  Material  progress  of  the  19th  century 


Outline 
I  The  Carolingian  empire  and  the  rise  of  feudalism. 

1  The  development  of  the  Christian  Church. 

a  Why  the  early  Christians  were  persecuted. 
b  The  influence  of  Constantine  on  the  Church. 


1 86  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

c  The  first  great  popes:  Leo  the  Great,  440-61;  Gregory  the 
Great,  590-604. 

d  Growth  of  the  power  of  the  popes,  to  the  7th  century. 

e  The  rise  of  Mohammedanism. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  and  the  following  section  do  not  fall  within  the 
limits  of  the  period  under  consideration  (a.d.  800-1900),  yet  a  knowledge  of 
them  is  absolutely  essential.  Many  teachers  may  prefer  to  impart  this 
knowledge  by  an  informal  lecture  or  talk ;  and  once  more  attention  is  called 
to  the  fact  that  an  oral  narrative  sometimes  gives  the  best  possible  supple- 
mentary material.  Or  a  review  may  be  made  of  sections  61 ,  65  and  66  of 
the  "Outline"  of  ancient  history. 

2  The  consolidation  of  various  German  tribes  into  the  Frankish 

kingdom,  to  768. 

a  The  wars  and  conquests  of  Clovis  and  his  sons. 

b  The  conversion  of  the  Franks  to  Christianity  and  the  impor- 
tance of  that  event. 

c  The  rise  of  the  Mayors  of  the  Palace  and  the  overthrow  of 
the  Merovingian  dynasty. 

d  The  rule  of  Pippin,  752-68,  and  its  importance. 

3  The  wars  and  conquests  of  Charlemagne. 

a  The  interference  in  Lombardy  and  its  results,  772-74. 
b  The  subjugation  of  the  Saxon  people,  772-802. 
c  Minor  wars. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Personal  characteristics  of  Charlemagne. 
B  The  ordeal  as  a  legal  proof  of  guilt  or  innocence. 

4  The  founding  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  800  a.d. 
a  The  imperial  coronation  in  Rome  and  its  meaning. 

b  The  methods  employed  to  govern  and  administer  the  empire. 
c  The  encouragement  of  learning,  literature,  and  art. 

Map  work: 

Boundaries  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Charlemagne's  conception  of  the  duties  of  an  emperor  (as  shown 

in  the  capitulary  of  the  year  802). 
B  The  Palace  School. 

5  The  decline  of  the  Carolingian  empire,  and  the  formation  of 

separate  monarchies. 
a  Character  of  Louis  the  Pious  as  a  reason  for  the  decline  of 

the  empire. 
b  The  quarrels  of  Louis  the  Pious  with  his  sons. 
c  The  events  that  led  to  the  treaties  of  Verdun  and  of  Mer- 

sen;  terms  of  the  treaties. 
d  The  last  Carolingians  in  Germany  and  in  France. 


EUROPEAN   HISTORY  187 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils; 
The  Strasburg  Oaths. 

Special  map  work: 

Boundaries  of  the  three  kingdoms  at  the  treaty  of  Verdun. 

6  The  beginnings  of  feudalism. 

a  Definition  of  the  terms  benefice  and  vassalage,  and  explana- 
tion of  the  fief  as  the  central  institution  of  feudalism. 

b  Lord,  vassal,  and  sub  vassal,  and  their  respective  duties, 
rights  and  privileges. 

c  Importance  of  feudalism  from  a  military,  financial,  adminis- 
trative, and  social  point  of  view. 

II  The   papacy   and   the   beginning   of   the   new    German-Roman 
empire. 

7  Germany  and  Italy,  to  the  death  of  Otto  the  Great,  973. 
a  Stem-duchies  and  first  elective  kings  (Henry  1,  919-36). 
b  Revival  of  the  empire  by  Otto  the  Great,  962. 

Special  map  work: 

Map  showing  the  stem-duchies  and  the  boundaries  of  the 
empire  of  Otto  1. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils; 
A  The  Vikings  or  Norsemen:   their  raids  and  their  settlements. 
B  Comparison    of    Charlemagne    and    Otto    1. 

8  The  struggle  over  the  right  of  investiture,  to  1122. 

'  a  The  papacy  in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries;  beginning  of 
interference  by  Otto  1. 

b  Church  and  state  under  Henry  3 ;  his  character  and  plans ; 
prevalent  evils  in  the  church. 

c  Causes  and  beginnings  of  the  struggle  for  the  right  of  in- 
vestiture: the  youth  and  education  of  Henry  4;  increasing 
power  of  the  papacy,  1059-73;  importance  of  the  ceremony 
of  investiture. 

d  The  struggle  at  its  hight,  1073-77:  phases  of  the  Saxon  re- 
bellion and  effect  on  Henry's  policy;  demands  of  Gregory  7 ; 
the  ban ;  necessity  for  its  removal ;  the  pilgrimage  to  Canossa. 

e  The  end  of  the  struggle :  its  course  to  the  death  of  Gregory  7  ; 
last  years  of  Henry  4's  reign ;  Henry  5  and  Pope  Paschal  2 ; 
the  concordat  of  Worms,  1122. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  titles  and  pretensions  of  a  medieval  emperor. 
B  The  quarrel  between  Gregory  7  and  Henry  4,  as  seen  through  their 

own  letters. 
C  Hildebrand's  ideas  of  the  powers  of  a  pope. 


1 88  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

9  Frederick  i  (Barbarossa),  1152-90. 

a  Beginning  of  the  struggle  with  the  Lombard  communes: 

rise  of  the  Italian  communes;   the  Roncaglian  decrees;   the 

sieges  of  Milan. 
b  Beginning  of  the  struggle  with  the  popes:    quibbles  with 

Adrian  4;    election  of  Alexander  3;    council  of  Pavia. 
c  The  end  of  Frederick's  struggles  in   Italy:    the  Lombard 

League;  the  peace  of  Venice;   Henry  the  Lion. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  Besancon  episode  between  Frederick  Barbarossa  and  Adrian  4 
B  Arnold  of  Brescia. 

10  Innocent  3  and  his  position  in  Christendom,  11 98-1 2 16. 
a  Innocent  and  Aragon. 

b  Innocent  and  England. 
c  Innocent  and  France. 

d  Innocent  and  the  empire:  the  rival  rulers  of  Germany  and 
the  battle  of  Bouvines,  12 14. 

11  Frederick  2  and  the  fall  of  the  Hohenstaufen. 

a  Reign  of  the  Emperor  Henry  6:  the  acquisition  of  Sicily; 
capture  of  Richard  of  England;   Henry's  ambitious  plans. 

b  Frederick  2  and  Gregory  9 :  causes  of  enmity ;  the  crusade 
and  its  results;  progress  of  hostilities  to  the  death  of  Greg- 
ory 9,  1241. 

c  Frederick  2  and  Innocent  4:  Frederick's  misfortunes  and 
death;   the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Personality  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  2 ;    his  appearance,  ability 

as   a   ruler,   legislation,   religious  views,    amusements,   interest  in 

science  and  art. 
B  A  medieval  troubadour. 

Ill  The  formation  of  France,  to  1328. 

12  The  rise  of  the  Capetian  dynasty,  to  1180. 
a  The  great  fiefs  of  France. 

b  The  accession  of  Hugh  Capet,  987. 

c  The  reigns  of  Louis  6,  1108-37,  and  Louis  7,  1137-80. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
Norman  conquest  of  England;    William  in  Normandy;    preparations 
for  conquest;    the  invasion;    results  of  conquest  for  France. 

13  France  under  Philip  Augustus  and  St  Louis,  11 80-1 2 70. 
a  The  extension  of  the  king's  domain. 

b  The  development  of  the  central  government. 
c  St  Louis  as  a  king  and  a  saint. 


EUROPEAN  HISTORY  189 

Special  map  work: 

France  under  Philip  Augustus,  showing  chief  divisions  of 
France  and  territory  acquired  during  his  reign. 

14  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  1285-13 14,  and  Pope  Boniface  8, 

1294-1303. 
a  Power  of  the  Papacy ;  causes  of  the  quarrel  between  Boniface 

and  Philip. 
b  Progress  of  the  quarrel. 
c  Death  of  Boniface. 
d  The  power  of  the   king  at  the    close  of   the  quarrel;    the 

estates-general  of  1302. 
e  The  Papacy  at  Avignon. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
Career  of  Rienzi  at  Rome. 

IV  The  East  and  the  crusades,  1096-1270. 

15  The  East  before  the  crusades. 
a  The  Eastern  empire. 

b  Saracen  civilization. 

c  The  coming  of  the  Seljuk  Turks. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Constantinople  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
B  Medieval  pilgrimages. 
C  Liutprand's  account  of  his  mission  to  Constantinople. 

16  The  first  crusade,  1096-99. 

a  General  causes  and  occasion  for  a  crusade. 
b  The  council  of  Clermont,  1095. 
c  The  armies  on  the  march. 
d  Achievements  of  the  crusade. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
The  speech  of  Urban  2. 

17  The  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  and  the  second  crusade. 

a  The  rulers,  form  of  government,  and  general  condition  of 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 

b  The  fall  of  Edessa  and  the  preaching  of  St  Bernard. 

c  The  second  crusade :  the  expeditions  of  Conrad  3  of  Germany 
and  Louis  7  of  France. 

d  The  religious-military  orders:  Templars,  Hospitallers,  Teu- 
tonic Knights. 

18  The  third  and  fourth  crusades. 

a  The  third  crusade:   its  occasion  and  results. 

b  The  fourth  crusade  and  its  diversion  from  its  purpose. 


IC)0  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

c  The  Latin  empire  of  Constantinople:  its  history  and  its  fall, 
1204-61. 

Map  work; 

Outline  map  showing  routes  of  first  and  third  crusades. 

19  The  end  of  the  crusades. 
a  The  crusades  of  St  Louis. 

b  Fall  of  Acre  and  end  of  Christian  rule  in  the  East. 
c  Results  of  the  crusades. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils; 
A  The  experience  of  a  medieval  crusader :  motives ;  vows ;  privileges ; 

preparation;   dress;   arms;   route;  battles  and  sieges;  benefits  and 

disadvantages  of  the  experience. 
B  A  Knight  Templar:  aims  and  occupations;  decline  and  end  of  the 

order. 
C  The  career  and  character  of  Saladin. 
D  The  Children's  Crusade. 
E  The  East  after  the  crusades. 

V  Christian  and  feudal  civilization. 

20  The  church  in  the  13th  century. 
a  The  secular  clergy. 

b  The  monks. 

c  The  religious  orders:    Franciscans  and  Dominicans. 

d  Heretical  sects;  the  Albigensian  crusade. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils; 
A  A  Gothic  cathedral:    e.g.  Notre  Dame,  Amiens,  Chartres,  Salis- 
bury, Cologne. 
B  A  day  in  a  Benedictine  monastery. 

21  Medieval  schools  and  universities. 

a  Subjects  of  study  ("the  seven  liberal  arts"). 
b  Monastery  and  cathedral  schools. 
c  The  great  universities. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils; 
The  life  of  medieval  students. 

22  The  life  of  the  military  classes. 
a  The  castle. 

b  Medieval  warfare. 
c  Chivalry. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils; 
A  Description  of  some  particular  castle,  e.g.  the  Tower  of  London, 

Chateau  Gaillard,    Salzburg,    Nuremberg,   Wartburg,   Kenilworth, 

Edinburgh,  Chillon. 
B  A  medieval  tournament. 


EUROPEAN   HISTORY  IQI 

23  Peasant  life. 

a  The  manorial  system. 
b  The  medieval  agriculture. 
c  Village  life. 

24  Towns  and  town  life. 
a  The  rise  of  towns. 

b  The   gilds. 

c  Outward  appearance  of  a  medieval  town:  walls,  buildings, 
streets. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  study  of  some  town  as  illustrated  by  its  existing  remains,  e.g. 
Rouen,  Chartres,  Bruges,  Nuremberg,  Toledo,  Florence,  Perugia, 
Siena. 

25  Medieval  commerce. 

a  The  principal  commodities. 
b  The  great  routes  of  trade. 
c  Markets  and  fairs. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Travel  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
B  Marco  Polo. 

VI  The  era  of  the  Renaissance,  14th  and  15th  centuries. 

26  Germany  and  the  Empire,  12 73-1493. 

a  Rise  of  Austria  and  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg:  Rudolph  of 
Hapsburg;  the  powers  of  the  emperor  and  of  the  seven 
electors;  the  Golden  Bull  of  1356;  the  Hapsburgs  and  their 
policy. 

b  Eastward  expansion:  the  mark  of  Brandenburg;  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights. 

c  The  rise  of  the  cities;   the  Hanseatic  League. 

d  Rise  of  the  Swiss  confederation. 

e  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy. 

/  The  weakness  of  the  Empire  at  the  end  of  the  15th  century. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  attitude  of  the  emperors  toward  Italy  (e.g.  Rudolph,  Henry 

7). 
B  Legend  of  William  Tell. 

Special  map  work:  ■ 

Sketch  map  of  Switzerland  showing  the  three  original  Forest 
Cantons  and  the  other  cantons  added,  to  15 13.  This  map 
will  prove  useful  also  for  the  period  of  the  Protestants  in 
Switzerland,  section  37. 


I92  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

27  France  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries;   the  Hundred  Years 

War. 
a  The  English  occupation  of  France. 
b  The  driving  out  of  the  English. 
c  Louis  11  and  his  work. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
Joan  of  Arc. 

28  The  consolidation  of  Spain  into  a  powerful  monarchy. 
a  The  Christian  recovery  of  Spain. 

b  The  union  of  Castile  and  Aragon. 
c  The  conquest  of  Granada  and  treatment  of  the  Moors. 
d  Growth  of  the  royal  power,  to  the  opening  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  Cid. 
B  The  Alhambra. 

29  Political  and  social  conditions  in  Italy  in  the  14th  and  15  th 

centuries. 
a  Florence  and  Venice. 
b  The  Papal  monarchy. 
c  The  two  Sicilies. 
d  The  rule  of  the  despots. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
The  Condottieri. 

30  The  beginning  of   the   Renaissance  in   Italy;   the  revival  of 

learning. 
a  The  spirit  and  meaning  of  the  Renaissance;  its  many-sided 

character. 
b  Italian  literature:  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boccaccio. 
c  The  revival  of  learning:   the  Greek  teachers;   the  work  of 

Petrarch  and  Boccaccio;  the  recovery,  editing,  and  printing 

of  classical  texts. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
The  life  of  Dante. 

31  The  fine  arts  during  the  Renaissance. 
a  The  great  architects. 

b  The  chief  sculptors. 

c  The  Florentine  and  Venetian  painters. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  building  of  the  dome  of  Brunelleschi. 
B  The  arts  at  the  court  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent. 


EUROPEAN   HISTORY  1 93 

In  the  study  of  this  and  the  preceding  section  the  pupil  should  confine 
his  attention  to  a  few  of  the  most  prominent  men.     In  connection  with 
section  31,  photographs  should  be  used  as  liberally  as  possible  to  illus- 
trate the  art  of  the  period. 
32  The  age  of  the  great  discoveries  and  inventions. 

a  European  conditions  at  the  end  of  the  15th  century  which 
led  to  discoveries  and  inventions. 

b  Portuguese  discoveries  to  the  east. 

c  Spanish  discoveries  and  conquests  in  the  western  world. 

d  Mechanical  inventions  of  the  era  and  how  they  helped  dis- 
covery and  conquest. 

e  The  new  ideas  in  astronomy:  Copernicus  and  Galileo. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  life  and  struggles  of  Christopher  Columbus. 
B  A  comparison  between  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  and  the  19th 

century. 
C  Invention  of  printing. 

Map  work: 

Sketch  map  showing  the  voyages  of  discovery  of  Columbus, 

Vasco  da  Gama,  Cabot  and  Magellan. 
^^  Reforming  movements  of  the  15th  century. 

a  Councils  of  Pisa,  Constance,  and  Basel:  what  each  attempted 

and  why  they  failed. 
b  John  Hus. 
c  Savonarola. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
Wyclif's  teachings  and  how  they  spread. 

VII  The  protestant  revolution  and  the  wars  of  religion,  15 17-1648. 

34  The  eve  of  the  Protestant  revolt  in  Germany. 

a  Germany  at  the  opening  of  the  16th  century:   the  Emperor 
Maximilian;  the  electors;  the  princes;  the  towns;  the  diet. 
b  The  Church:   conditions  that  encouraged  heresy. 
c  Erasmus  and  the  German  humanists. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Erasmus's  criticism  of  the  Church. 
B  Ulrich  von  Hutten. 

Map  work: 

Lands  ruled  over  by  Charles  5 . 

35  The  Lutheran  revolt,  to  1525. 

a  Martin  Luther,  to  the  Diet  of  Worms,  1521:    his  early  life; 
the  question  of  the  indulgences  and  the  posting  of  the  theses, 


194  N£W   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

1517;  the  Leipzig  disputation,  1519;  the  burningof  the  Papal 

bull  and  canon  law,  1520. 

b  The  Emperor  Charles  5  and  the  Diet  of  Worms,  1 5  2 1 :  election 

of  the  emperor;  Luther  before  the  diet;  the  edict  of  Worms. 

c  Fanaticism  and  revolution  in  Germany :  Hutten  and  Sickin- 

gen;  the  Peasants  War;  the  Anabaptists. 
Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Luther  at  the  Wartburg. 
B  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible. 

36  Charles  5  and  the  Protestant  revolt  in  Germany,  1526-55. 

a  The  Diets ;  Charles's  rivalry  with  Francis  1  and  his  attitude 

toward  the  Protestants,  1526-46. 
b  Attacks  of  the  Turks. 
c  The  emperor  and  the  Smalkald  League,  1547;    Maurice  of 

Saxony. 
d  The  religious  peace  of  Augsburg,  1555:  the  limited  nature  of 

its  tolerance. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  Italian  wars  of  Charles  5  with  special  reference  to  the  battle  of 
Pavia  (1525)  and  the  sack  of  Rome  (1527). 
I  B  The   gold  of   the    Indies,  and  how  it  came  into  the  treasury  of 

Charles  5. 

37  The  Protestants  in  Switzerland,  to  1531. 

a  Ulrich  Zwingli  and  the  Swiss  Protestants,  to  the  time  of  the 

Marburg  Conference. 
b  The  Marburg  Conference  and  its  failure,  1529. 
c  Religious  war  in  Switzerland ;  terms  of  settlement. 
d  Zwingli's  ideas  as  to  government  of  church  and  of  state. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
Condition  of  Switzerland  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 

38  John  Calvin  and  his  work. 

a  Early  history,  character,  and  beliefs  of  John  Calvin,  to  1536. 
b  Calvin's  activity  in  Geneva,  1536-64. 

c  Influence  of  Calvin  and  Geneva  on  Germany,  France,  Hol- 
land, Scotland,  England  and  America. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Calvin  and  Servetus. 
B  Comparison  of  the  character  and  ideas  of  Luther  and  Calvin. 

39  Rise  of  Protestantism  in  France,  to  1572. 

a  Beginnings  of  a  Protestant  party:    Jacques  Lefevre;   perse- 
cutions under  Francis  1,  1515-47. 
b  Increase  and  organization  of  the  Protestants  under  Henry  2, 

1547-59. 


EUROPEAN    HISTORY  1 95 

c  Civil  wars  under  Charles  9:  Catherine  de*  Medici  and  the 
Guises;  Coligny;  how  the  Huguenots  gradually  gained 
privileges. 

d  The  Massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  1572. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Catherine  de'  Medici:    her  life,  character,  and  policy. 
B  The  character  and  influence  of  Coligny. 
C  Attitude  of  Europe  toward  the  massacre. 

40  France  under  Henry  4. 

a  Henry  of  Navarre's  struggle  for  the  crown:  battle  of  Ivry; 
his  abjuration. 

b  The  Edict  of  Nantes,  1598. 

c  Henry  4  and  Sully:   reforms  in  finances  and  agriculture. 

d  Henry  4's  foreign  policy  and  death ;  his  character;  his  popu- 
larity then  and  now. 

e  Troubles  after  Henry  4's  death;  the  states-general  of  1614. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
French  settlements  in  North  America. 

41  The  Catholic  reformation  and  the  Jesuits. 

a  The  Jesuits:  Loyola's  character  and  training;  organization, 
objects  and  methods  of  the  Society  of  Jesus ;  their  work. 

b  The  work  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  1545-63. 

c  How  the  Catholic  church  was  reformed  in  discipline  and 
gained  new  power. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Jesuit  missionary  efforts. 
B  The  services  of  Jesuit  missionaries  in  North  America. 

42  The  revolt  of  the  Netherlands,  1 568-1648. 

a  The   Netherlands   to    1556:    religious,   political,   social   and 

economic  conditions;  the  rule  of  Charles  5. 
b  Philip  2  and  the  outbreak  of  discontent:   political,  religious 

and  economic  causes  of  the  revolt. 
c  The  leadership  of  William  of  Orange. 
d  How  the  Dutch  won  their  independence. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  siege  of  Leyden. 
B  Character  of  William  the  Silent. 
C  Dutch  life  at  the  opening  of  the  17  th  century. 
D  Spanish  Armada. 

43  The  Thirty  Years  War,  1618-48. 

a  The  strife  of  parties  in  Germany ;  the  Donauworth  disturb- 
ances; the  land  question  involved  in  the  "ecclesiastical 
reservation," 


I96  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

b  The  Bohemian  election  and  the  throwing  from  the  window; 
the  Winter  King ;  battle  on  the  White  Hill. 

c  The  Danish  period:   Christian  4  and  Mansfeld. 

d  Gustavus  Adolphus.the  champion  of  German  Protestantism: 
his  campaigns  and  their  results ;  his  death. 

e  Wallenstein:  his  influence,  dismissal,  return  and  assassina- 
tion. 

/   French  aims  and  interference. 

g  The  Peace  of  Westphalia:  its  terms  and  international  import- 
ance. 

h  Social  and  economic  effects  of  the  war  on  Germany. 

Map  work: 

Sketch  map  showing  Europe  after  the  peace  of  Westphalia. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
The  reform  of  the  calendar  in  1582. 

VIII  The  ascendancy  of  France  and  the  age  of  Louis  14. 

44  Richelieu  and  the  establishment  of  the  absolute  monarchy. 

a  Richelieu:    rise  to  power;    character;    aims;    his  relations 

with  Louis  13. 
b  Richelieu  and  the  Huguenots. 
c  Richelieu  and  the  nobles :  how  he  destroyed  their  power  and 

strengthened  the  monarchy ;  the  intendants. 
d  Richelieu  and  the  Thirty  Years  War. 
e  Mazarin:  causes  of    his  unpopularity;    revolt  of  the  nobles 

and  lawyers;   how  he  carried  out  Richelieu's  work;   foreign 

policy;  what  is  meant  by  an  "  absolute  monarchy . " 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Plots  against  Richelieu. 
B  The  French  Academy. 
C  The  siege  of  La  Rochelle. 

45  Louis  14   (1 661-17 1 5)  and  ms  court. 

a  Louis  the  man:  early  education  and  training;  character, 
abilities,  deficiencies  and  aims. 

b  Louis  14  the  king:  idea  of  government  and  of  a  king's  power; 
what  he  expected  of  the  nobles;  new  royal  palaces;  occupa- 
tions and  amusements  at  Versailles. 

c  Art  and  literature  in  the  age  of  Louis  14;  effect  of  Louis's 
paternalism. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Costumes  in  the  age  of  Louis  14. 
B  Louis  14's  morning  reception  and  toilet. 


EUROPEAN   HISTORY  ICff 

46  The  people ;  Colbert  and  his  reforms. 

a  The  people:  their  burdensome  taxes;  corruption  of  officials. 

b  Colbert:  his  services  to  Mazarin;  how  he  tried  to  lighten  the 
burdens  of  the  people;  how  he  encouraged  industries,  com- 
merce, and  colonization. 

c  Colbert  and  Louis  14:  differences  in  their  aims. 

d  The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes;  its  effect  on  the 
prosperity  and  foreign  relations  of  France. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  Dragonnades. 
B  Overthrow  of  Fouquet. 
C  How  Louis  14  and  Colbert  governed  New  France. 

47  Louis  14's  wars. 

a  War  against  the  Dutch,  1672-78:  its  causes;  Louis's  in- 
vasion of  Holland;  murder  of  De  Witt,  and  rise  of  William 
of  Orange ;  what  Louis  gained  by  the  war. 

b  War  of  League  of  Augsburg,  1689-97:  causes,  political  and 
religious;  Louis's  devastation  of  the  Palatinate;  why 
England  took  part  in  the  war;  battles  of  the  Boyne  and  La 
Hogue;  terms  of  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  1697. 

c  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  1702-13:  Carlos  2  of 
Spain;  his  vast  territories;  interests  of  the  European 
nations  in  the  question  of  the  succession  ;  Louis  14's  ag- 
gressive measures ;  formation  of  the  Grand  Alliance ;  Marl- 
borough's campaigns  in  the  Netherlands  and  on. the  Danube; 
capture  of  Gibraltar;  Queen  Anne's  War  in  America ;  terms  of 
the  peace  of  Utrecht. 

d  France  at  the  close  of  Louis  14's  reign:  condition  of  the 
French  people  at  the  close  of  the  wars ;  increased  taxation ; 
famine  of  1709;  position  of  France  in  Europe  and  America 
at  the  close  of  the  wars;  Louis  14's  unlamented  death, 
17 15 ;  how  Louis  14's  reign  prepared  the  way  for  the  French 
Revolution. 

Map  work: 

Sketch  map  showing  the  territorial  terms  of  the  peace  of 
Utrecht. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Battle  of  Blenheim. 
B  Effect  of  the  wars  of  Louis  14  on  France. 


IC$  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

IX^The"rise]of  Russia,  Prussia  and  colonial  interests.     The  age  of 
Frederick  the  Great. 

48  The  Formation  of  the  Russian  empire ;   Peter  the  Great. 

a  Russia  before  Peter  the  Great :  the  Slavic  races  and  charac- 
teristics; oriental  influences  on  Russian  character  and  de- 
velopment ;  Ivan  the  Terrible ;  social  and  political  condition 
of  Russia  at  the  accession  of  Peter. 

b  Peter  the  Great,  1689-17 25:  struggle  for  the  throne ;  travels 
ambitions,  and  difficulties;  Peter's  western  friends;  his 
character. 

c  Internal  reforms  of  Peter  the  Great:  army;  navy;  dress 
and  customs ;  church ;  the  new  capital. 

49  The  expansion  of  Russia  in  the  18th  century. 

a  In  the  Baltic:  importance  of  the  Baltic  sea;  its  special  value 
to  Sweden,  Denmark,  Poland,  Prussia,  Russia;  Charles  12 
of  Sweden;  his  character  and  ambitions;  his  struggle  with 
Peter  the  Great;  battles  of  Narva  and  Poltava;  Charles  12's 
mad  career  and  death ;  decline  of  Sweden ;  Russia's  foothold 
on  the  Baltic;  St  Petersburg. 

b  In  Turkey  and  the  Black  sea:  Peter's  gain  and  loss  of  Azov; 
death  of  Peter  the  Great ;  his  importance  in  Russian  history ; 
Catherine  2,  1762-96;  her  wars  with  Turkey  and  conquest 
of  the  north  shore  of  the  Black  sea. 

c  In  Poland:  internal  disorders  and  weakness  of  Poland; 
Catherine  2's  share  in  the  three  partitions  of  Poland,  1772, 

i793>  1795- 
d  In  Siberia:   early  explorations  and  settlements. 

Special  map  work: 

Sketch  map  showing  the  gains  in  territory  made  by  Russia 
in  the  18th  century. 

50  The  beginnings  of  the  Prussian  state,  1 640-1 740. 

a  The  Hohenzollerns  before  1640:  how  they  acquired  their 
three  territories  (Brandenburg,  Prussia,  Cleves) ;  geographic 
position  of  these  territories  and  its  future  significance;  the 
task  of  the  Hohenzollerns. 

b  Frederick  William,  the  "Great  Elector,"  1640-88:  character; 
gains  of  territory  by  Treaty  of  Westphalia;  his  position  in 
his  own  lands  and  in  Europe. 

c  How  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  acquired  the  title  of  "  King 
in  Prussia,"  1701. 

d  Frederick  William  1.  1713-40:   how  he  made  Prussia  a  mili- 


EUROPEAN    HISTORY  199 

tary  state  and  a  prosperous  country;    his  foreign  policy; 
the  "tobacco  parliament " ;  good  and  bad  side  of  his  character. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Origin  of  the  Hohenzollern  family. 

B  Frederick  William's  reception  of  the  Salzburg  Protestants. 
C  Frederick    William's    true    and    legendary    character. 

51  Frederick  the  Great,  1740-86. 

a  The  youth  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

b  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  1740-48:  death  of  Em- 
peror Charles  6  and  Frederick  William  1  in  1740;  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction;  Maria  Theresa  and  her  difficulties;  Fred- 
erick the  Great  and  his  ambitions ;  his  invasion  of  Silesia ; 
interests  of  France  and  England ;  results  of  the  war. 

c  The  interval  of  peace:  reforms  in  Prussia  and  Austria;  Maria 
Theresa's  secret  alliances  and  their  purpose;  Frederick's 
perilous  position;  his  change  of  policy  and  alliance  with 
England. 

d  The  Seven  Years  War,  1756-63:  how  Frederick  defended 
Silesia;  his  occupation  of  Saxony;  the  battles  of  Rossbach, 
Leuthen  and  Zorndorf ;  Frederick's  critical  position  in  the 
last  years  of  the  war;  change  in  Russia's  policy;  effect  of 
the  war  on  the  rivalry  between  Prussia  and  Austria. 

e  Frederick's  later  years:  his  share  in  the  first  partition  of 
Poland;   Frederick's  character  and  death,  1786. 

Special  map  work: 

Sketch  map  showing  the  extent  of  Prussia's  territory  at  the 
death  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

52  Frederick  the  Great  in  time  of  peace. 

a  Personal  appearance;  habits  and  popularity  of  "Father 
Fritz." 

b  Frederick  as  musician,  author  and  philosopher;  life  at 
Sans  Souci;   Voltaire's  visits  and  quarrels. 

c  Frederick's  measures  for  the  welfare  of  his  people. 

d  Frederick  a  typical  "enlightened  despot":  his  idea  of  a 
ruler's  duty;  comparison  of  Frederick  with  Joseph  2  and 
Catherine  2;  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  govern- 
ment by  "enlightened  despots." 

e  Frederick's  place  in  history:  his  importance  in  Prussian  and 
in  German  history;    Frederick  a  national  hero. 

/  German  literature  in  the  age  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Frederick  and  Voltaire  as  typical  representatives  of  the  1 8th  century 
B  Joseph  2  as  an  enlightened  despot. 


200  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

53  The  expansion  of  England. 

a  In  North  America:  settlements  at  Jamestown,  Plymouth, 
and  Boston;  conquest  of  New  York;  characteristics  of  the 
English  colonies  in  America ;  struggle  between  England  and 
France  for  North  America;  England's  gains  by  the  peace  of 
Utrecht,  1713;  Wolfe  and  the  capture  of  Quebec,  1759; 
the  peace  of  Paris,  1763;  how  England  lost  her  Thirteen 
Colonies ;  the  share  of  France  in  the  American  Revolution. 

b  In  India :  English  trade  settlements  in  India ;  French  settle- 
ments and  policy  toward  the  natives;  struggle  between 
England  and  France  for  India;  the  "Black  Hole";  Clive 
and  the  battle  of  Plassey,  1757;  Warren  Hastings  and  the 
English  government  of  India. 

c  How  the  wars  in  Europe  were  connected  with  those  in 
America  and  India. 

d  Decline  of  France  in  the  18th  century. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  What  were  the  differences  between  the  French  and  English  col- 
onies in  North  America? 
B  John  Law  and  the  Mississippi  Bubble. 

X  French  Revolution,  1789-95. 

54  Abuses  and  evils  of  the  Old  Regime. 

a  Inherent  weaknesses  of  an  absolute  monarchy;  incapacity, 
folly  and  indifference  of  Louis  15;  reckless  extravagance; 
lettres  de  cachet. 

b  Survival  of  feudal  abuses :  lack  of  uniform  laws  and  adminis- 
tration ;  feudal  privileges  of  nobility  and  higher  clergy  with- 
out corresponding  duties ;   absenteeism. 

c  Political  and  social  evils:  taxation;  taille  and  gabelle ;  op- 
pression of  government  officials. 

d  Economic  evils:  lack  of  roads,  of  freedom  of  work,  and  of 
commerce;  poverty  and  hardships  of  the  peasants  and 
parish  priests. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Society  and  life  in  Paris  before  1789. 
B  The  army  and  its  officers  before  1789. 
C  Decline  of  respect  and  love  of  the  people  toward  the  king  during 

reign  of  Louis  15. 
D  Origin  and  justification  of  the  system  of  privilege. 

55  Growth  of  a  revolutionary  spirit  before  1789. 

a  The  Parlements  of  the  18th  century:  how  they  called  atten- 
tion to  the  existing  evils  and  proposed  "fundamental  laws. " 


EUROPEAN   HISTORY  201 

b  Influence  of  the  writers:  Voltaire's  attack  on  the  church; 
Rousseau's  Social  Contract;  Montesquieu's  Spirit  of  the 
Laws;  the  Encyclopedists;   the  new  school  of  economists. 

c  The  effect  of  the  American  Revolution. 

d  How  the  people  came  to  realize  the  evils  of  the  Old  Regime ; 
the  desire  for  liberty,  equality  and  fraternity. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Influence  of  England    on    the  growth  of    revolutionary  ideas  in 

France. 
B  Admiration  of  the  French  for  Benjamin  Franklin. 
C  Expulsion  of  th3  Jesuits  from  France. 

56  Louis  16  (1774-93)  and  attempts  at  reform. 

a  Louis  16's  character;   comparison  with  his  grandfather;  his 

marriage  with  Marie  Antoinette. 
b  Turgot's  ideas  and  reforms  (1774-76) ;  why  his  reforms  were 

opposed  by  every  class  of  society ;  Turgot's  dismissal. 
c  Attempted  reforms  of  Necker  and  Calonne ;    the  Assembly 

of  Notables,  1787. 
d  Impossibility  of  financial  reform;    growing  demand  for  a 

meeting  of  the  Estates-General. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
Beaumarchais. 

57  The  beginning  of  the  Revolution  and  destruction  of  the  Old 
t        Regime,  1789. 

a  The  Estates-General  of  1789:  Sieyes's  pamphlet,  public 
opinion,  and  the  cahiers;  meeting  of  the  Estates-General  at 
Versailles,  May  5,  1789;  how  should  it  vote;  the  "National 
Assembly"  and  "Tennis  Court  Oath"  (June  20). 

b  Fall  of  the  Bastile  (July  14);  its  real  and  legendary  im- 
portance. 

c  Decrees  of  Aug.  4;   establishment  of  a  national  guard. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Character  and  policy  of  Mirabeau. 
B  What  people  in  England  thought  of  revolution  in  France. 

58  The  attempt  to  make  a  constitution,  1789-91. 

a  The  "Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,"  and  the  division 
of  France  into  departments. 

b  Position  of  the  king :  the  veto  question ;  scarcity  of  bread ; 
"To  Versailles,"  Oct.  5. 

c  Financial  measures — assignats  and  confiscation  of  church 
property;  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  and  the  "non- 
jurors";  emigration  of  the  nobles. 


202  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

d  The  flight  to  Varennes  (June  20,  1791),  and  its  conse- 
quences; unpopularity  of  Marie  Antoinette. 

59  The  failure  of   the  Constitution  and  fall    of   the   monarchy, 
1791-92. 

a  The  Legislative  Assembly  (Oct.  1,  1791-Sep.  20,  1792): 
hostility  of  Jacobin  and  Girondist  parties;  decline  of  the 
assignats;  opposition  of  the  clergy;  weakness  of  the  king; 
continued  emigration  of  nobles. 

b  Interference  of  Europe  in  the  French  Revolution:  the 
Declaration  of  Pillnitz;  its  effect  on  feeling  in  France; 
decree  against  the  emigres;  declaration  of  war  against  Aus- 
tria; decree  of  "the  country  in  danger";  the  "federates" 
of  July  14,  1792,  and  the  Marseillaise;  manifesto  of  the  Duke 
of  Brunswick. 

c  Insurrection  of  Aug.  10  and  its  results. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
Why  the  French  people  hated  Marie  Antoinette. 

60  The  first  French  republic  and  the  war  against  Europe,  1792-93. 
a  The  advance  of  the  invaders :  feeling  in  Paris ;  Marat  and  the 

newspapers;  the  September  massacres;  the  cannonade  of 
Valmy,  Sep.  20,  1792. 

b  Establishment  of  the  Republic:  meeting  of  the  National 
Convention;  the  three  parties  and  the  leaders;  the  mon- 
archy; proclamation  of  the  Republic  and  the  "Year  1"; 
trial  and  execution  of  the  king. 

c  The  spread  of  the  Revolution ;  victories  and  conquests  of  the 
"volunteers  of  1792";  how  the  revolutionary  ideas  spread 
into  other  countries ;  how  they  were  checked ;  Dumouriez. 

d  The  Committee  of  Public  Safety  and  expulsion  of  the  Girond- 
ists (June  2,  1793). 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Cause  of  the  September  massacres. 
B  Trial  and  execution  of  Louis  16. 

61  The  Reign  of  Terror,   1793-94. 

a  Opposition  to  the  Revolution:  peasants  in  Brittany  and 
La  Vendee ;   alliance  with  England ;  Charlotte  Corday. 

b  The  guillotine  and  its  victims. 

c  The  Reign  of  Terror:  the  revolutionary  calendar  and  wor- 
ship of  Reason;  the  three  factions  of  the  Mountain  (Robes- 
pierre, Hubert,  Danton) ;  character  and  rule  of  Robespierre; 
the  festival  of  the  Supreme  Being. 


EUROPEAN   HISTORY  203 

d  The  fall  of  Robespierre,  July  27,  1794:  reaction  after  the 
Reign  of  Terror. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Madame  Roland. 
B  Charlotte  Corday. 
C  The  revolutionary  calendar. 

XI  Napoleon  Bonaparte  and  the  Napoleonic  wars,  1795-1815. 

62  France  in  1795. 

a  France  and  Europe:  successes  of  the  French  against  Eng- 
lish, emigres,  and  Dutch  (the  "Batavian  republic");  peace 
with  Spain  and  Prussia,  1795. 

b  Beneficial  progress  achieved  in  France  during  six  years  of 
revolution. 

c  The  Constitution  of  1795  or  the  "Year  3":  the  "Directory"; 
unpopularity  of  the  Convention;  Bonaparte's  "whiff  of 
grape  shot." 

d  Napoleon  Bonaparte's  early  life  and  opportunity:  nation- 
ality; education;  boyish  ambitions  and  occupations;  his 
part  in  the  siege  of  Toulon ;  marriage ;  personal  appearance 
and  habits;  his  opportunity  in  1795. 

63  General  Bonaparte  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  1796-99. 

a  Bonaparte's  first  campaign  in  Italy,  1796-97:  why  Bona- 
parte was  given  the  command;  how  he  encouraged  his  sol- 
diers ;  how  the  French  army  differed  from  the  Austrian  and 
Sardinian  armies ;  battles  of  Lodi  and  Areola ;  siege  of  Man- 
tua; fate  of  Venice;  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  1797;  the 
Cisalpine  Republic ;  Bonaparte's  reception  on  his  return  to 
Paris. 

b  The  Egyptian  expedition :  its  purposes  and  the  causes  of  its 
failure ;  how  it  illustrates  Bonaparte's  character  and  plans. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A   Bonaparte's  treatment  of  the  conquered  Italians. 
B  Bonaparte's  plans  of  conquest  in  the  Orient. 

64  Bonaparte  as  consul,  1799-1804. 

a  The  coup  d'etat  of  1799  (18th  Brumaire) :  what  happened  in 
France  while  Bonaparte  was  in  Egypt ;  his  reception  in  Paris 
on  his  return ;  the  coup  d'etat;  constitution  of  the  Consulate ; 
how  the  First  Consul  kept  the  real  power  in  his  own  hands. 

b  Bonaparte's  second  campaign  in  Italy,  1800-1:  battle  of 
Marengo;  Moreau  at  Hohenlinden;  peace  with  Austria  at 
LuneVille  (1801)  and  with  England  at  Amiens  (1802). 


204  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

c  The  interval  of  peace  (i 80 1-3)  and  reconstruction  of  French 
institutions:  the  Concordat;  decrees  in  favor  of  emigrant 
nobles ;  renewal  of  old  habits  and  society ;  the  Code  Napoleon 
and  its  importance;  schools,  scholars,  and  the  Legion  of 
Honor;  Bonaparte's  colonial  projects ;  Louisiana. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Bonaparte's  reconstruction  of  Germany. 
B  How  the  United  States  secured  Louisiana. 
C  Bonaparte's  idea  of  good  society. 
65  The  Napoleonic  empire,  1804. 

a  Royalist  plots  against  Bonaparte:   the  execution  of  the  Due 

d'Enghien  and  its  effect  on  Europe. 
b  Restoration  of  the  empire:    Napoleon  1  the  "successor  of 
Charlemagne";  how  old  Europe  regarded  the  new  emperor. 
c  Renewal  of  war:    Malta;    occupation  of  Hanover;    coast 
blockade;    changes  in  the  dependent  kingdoms;    prepara- 
tions for  the  invasion  of  England;   Napoleon's  weakness  on 
the  ocean;  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  1805. 
,    66  Napoleon's  campaigns  from  Austerlitz  to  Tilsit,  1805-7. 

a  Campaign    against    Austria,    1805:     capitulation    of    Ulm; 

battle  of  Austerlitz;     end  of  the  Holy  Roman   Empire; 

Francis  2,  "Emperor  of  Austria";  the  Confederation  of  the 

Rhine. 

b  Campaign  against  Prussia,  1806:  battle  of  Jena. 

c  Campaign  against  Russia,  1807:   battle  of  Eylau;   terms  of 

the  treaty  of  Tilsit. 
d  Napoleon's   "continental    system":    purpose;   difficulty   in 
execution ;  its  effect  on  the  European  powers. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
The  effect  of  Napoleon's  continental  system  on  the  United  States. 
67  The  national  uprisings  against  Napoleon,  1808-12. 

a  The  Spanish  revolt,  1808-9:  importance  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal to  Napoleon's  plans;  Joseph's  troubles;  Napoleon  in 
Spain;  how  the  opposition  to  Napoleon  in  Spain  differed 
from  previous  opposition. 

b  The  Austrian  revolt,  1809:  Austria's  hopes;  battle  of 
Wagram;  Austria's  humiliation;  Napoleon's  second  mar- 
riage; his  annexations;  position  in  Europe  in  18 10;  elements 
of  weakness  in  his  empire. 

c  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Russia,  1812:  purpose,  causes  of 
failure ;  its  effect  on  Napoleon's  power. 

d  The  Prussian  rising,    18 13:  social   and  military  reforms  in 


EUROPEAN   HISTORY  205 

Prussia;  Frederick  William  3 's  proclamations;  beginning  of 
the  "War  of  Liberation." 

Map  work' 

Sketch  map  of  Europe  showing  Napoleon's  empire  and  de- 
pendent states  in  18 10. 

68  The  downfall  of  Napoleon,  18 13-15. 

a  Leipzig,  18 13:    importance  of  this  battle  for  Napoleon  and 

ior  Europe. 
b  Elba,  1814:  invasion  of  France  by  the  allies;  exhaustion  of 

France;   desertions  from  Napoleon;   Napoleon's  abdication ; 

how  he  lived  at  Elba. 
c  Waterloo,    1815:     Napoleon's    return    and    reception;     the 

"Hundred  Days";   the  battle  of  Waterloo,  June  18,  1815; 

Napoleon's  second  abdication. 
d  St  Helena,  18 15-21:   how  Napoleon  passed  the  days  of  his 

exile ;  his  character ;  his  place  in  history. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  How  far  was  Napoleon  favored  by  circumstances? 
B  Napoleon's  writings. 
C  What  in  his  career  did  Napoleon  regret  ? 
D  Napoleon's  hold  on  his  soldiers. 

XII  Growth  of  nationality,  democracy  and  liberty  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury. 

69  The  congress  of  Vienna  and  Metternich's  system  of  absolutism. 
a  Forces  in  the  development  of  Europe  in  the  19th  century: 

nationality;  popular  sovereignty  and  constitutional  govern- 
ment ;  equality ;  personal  liberty ;  the  press ;  industrial  and 
commercial  progress;  colonial  expansion;  European  con- 
gresses. 

b  The  congress  of  Vienna,  1814-15:  principle  of  legitimacy; 
territorial  problems  and  their  settlement;  constitutional 
arrangements ;  failure  of  the  congress  to  take  account  of  the 
new  forces  in  the  development  of  Europe  in  the  19th  century. 

c  Metternich's  system  of  absolutism,  1815-48:  aims  of  Metter- 
nich  and  Czar  Alexander;  the  Holy  Alliance;  struggles 
against  absolutism  in  Spain,  Germany  and  Italy. 

Map' work: 

Sketch  map  of  Europe  in  18 15  showing  the  territorial  settle- 
ments of  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Talleyrand  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
B  Origin  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 


206  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

In  the  19th  century  the  nations  of  Europe  have  come  into  closer  contact 
with  each  other,  and  their  history  becomes  more  and  more  interwoven;  this 
is  partly  the  result  of  the  introduction  of  railroads,  steam  vessels,  and  mag- 
netic telegraph,  and  the  daily  newspaper.  This  fact  has  led  some  historians 
to  treat  the  19th  century  chronologically,  showing  this  close  interrelation; 
this  method  is  perhaps  more  scientific  and  scholarly,  but  also  more  difficult. 
It  is  simpler  and  easier  for  young  students  to  follow  the  development  of  but 
one  nation  at  a  time.  This  topical  method  is  the  one  followed  in  this  out- 
line. 

70  The  Paris  revolutions  of  1830  and  1848. 

a  France  after  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons :  comparison  of 
France  in  1789  and  in  1815;  the  Charter;  Louis  18;  Charles 
10;  reactionary  measures. 

b  The  July  Revolution  in  Paris,  1830;  democracy  and  the 
press;  Louis  Philippe,  "King  of  the  French";  his  charac- 
ter and  reign ;  effect  of  the  revolution  on  Belgium  and  Poland. 

c  The  February  Revolution  in  Paris,  1848. 

d  The  second  republic,  1848-52:  what  the  socialists  wanted ; 
what  the  people  of  France  wanted;  Louis  Napoleon,  his 
character  and  ambitions. 

7 1  France  under  Napoleon  3  and  the  third  republic. 

a  The  second  empire,  1852-70:  Louis  Napoleon's  coup  d'etat  of 
Dec.  2,1852;  its  democratic  character ;  mistakes  of  Napoleon 
3's  foreign  policy;  the  Franco-Prussian  War;  the  surrender 
at  Sedan,  1870. 

b  The  Paris  Commune,  187 1. 

c  The  third  republic,  1870- ;  Thiers;  the  Constitutional  Laws ; 
difficulties  of  the  Third  Republic ;  reasons  for  its  stability. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 

A  Gambetta. 

B  The  pope  and  the  third  republic. 

C  The  present  government  of  the  third  republic. 

72  The  unification  of  Italy. 

a  State  of  Italy  in  181 5:  Italy  a  "geographical  expression" ; 
effects  of  Napoleon's  conquests  and  reforms;  Austrian  pos- 
sessions and  influence  in  Italy. 

b  Struggles  against  Austrian  absolutism,  1815-48:  the  Car- 
bonari; Mazzini;  the  revolution  of  1848;  Charles  Albert  and 
the  Constitution ;  failure  of  the  first  war  against  Austria. 

c  Union  of  Italy  under  Victor  Emmanuel  2  (1849-78) :  position 
of  Piedmont  in  Italy ;  Cavour's  aims  and  diplomatic  achieve- 
ments; the  war  of  1859  with  Austria  and  its  results;   Gari- 


EUROrKAN    HISTORY  207 

baldi's  career  and  additions  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy;  the 
Roman  question;  final  union  of  Italy,  1870. 

d  The  Papacy:  how  its  power  was  affected  by  the  union  of 
Italy;  "the  prisoner  of  the  Vatican";  Leo  13  and  his  policy. 

e  The  kingdom  of  Italy  since  1870:  parliamentary  govern- 
ment ;  economic  distress  and  emigration ;  colonial  failures. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  march  of  "The  Thousand.  " 
B  Napoleon  3  's  policy  toward  Italy. 
C  Garibaldi's  career  in  America  and  Italy. 
D  Vatican  Council,  1869-70. 
E  Present  government  of  Italy. 

Map  work: 

Sketch  map  of  Italy  in  1870,  showing,  with  dates,  the  ad- 
ditions to  Piedmont  since  18 15. 

73  The  struggle  for  liberty  and  unity  in  Germany,  1815-58. 

a  The  German  Confederation  of  1815:  its  defects  and  weak- 
nesses ;  Metternich's  influence ;  why  Austria  and  Prussia  were 
rivals ;  Prussia's  customs  union  (zollvereiri)  and  its  importance. 

b  The  revolutions  of  1848:  growth  of  liberalism  since  1815;  at- 
tempts to  suppress  it;  effects  of  the  Paris  revolution  of  1848 
on  events  in  Prussia,  Austria,  Hungary  and  Italy. 

c  First  attempts  at  German  unity:  the  Frankfort  Parliament 
and  its  failure;   Prussia's  humiliation  and  isolation. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
March  Revolution  in  Berlin,  1848. 

74  The  foundation  of  the  German  empire  under  Bismarck  and 

William  1  (1858-88). 

a  Preparation  for  conflict:  reorganization  of  the  Prussian 
military  system;  Bismarck's  earlier  career,  his  character, 
and  policy  of  "blood  and  iron";  his  victory  over  the  Prus- 
sian Parliament. 

b  Triumph  of  Prussia  over  Austria:  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
War,  1864;  the  Austro -Prussian  War  of  1866;  end  of  the 
German  Confederation;  the  North  German  Confederation, 
1867;    Austria's  position  after  1867. 

c  The  Franco-Prussian  War,  1870-71:  causes;  German  vic- 
tories; proclamation  of  the  New  German  Empire;  "Em- 
peror William  1";   Alsace-Lorraine. 

d  Germany  since  the  Franco-Prussian  War:  the  Triple  Alli- 
ance ;  William  2 ;  German  colonial  policy ;  the  power  of  the 
Social  Democrats. 


208  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Comparison  of  French  and  German  preparations  before  the  war  of 

1870. 
B   Bismarck  as  a  statesman. 

C  The  principles,  leaders,  and  power  of  the  Social  Democrats  in  Ger- 
many. 

75  Austria-Hungary  under  Francis  Joseph  1,  1848-. 

a  Various  races  in  Austria-Hungary:  their  characteristics  and 
ambitions;   the  Pan-Slavic  movement. 

Map  work: 

Sketch  map  of  Austria-Hungary  showing  the  various  races 
and  where  they  live. 

b  The  revolutions  of  1848:  flight  of  Metternich;  accession  of 
Francis  Joseph;  revolts  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary;  Hun- 
garian Constitution    of    1848;   suppression  of  these  revolts. 

c  Establishment  of  the  Dual  Monarchy,  1867:  decline  of  Aus- 
tria's influence  in  Germany  and  Europe  after  the  revolu- 
tions of  1848;  effect  of  the  Prussian  and  Italian  wars  of 
1866;  restoration  of  the  Hungarian  Constitution;  estab- 
lishment of  the  Dual  Monarchy  and  the  Compromise  (Aus- 
gleich)  of  1867. 

d  Austria-Hungary  since  1867:  acquisition  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina;  Austria's  interests  in  the  Balkan  peninsula; 
internal  difficulties  in  the  Austro -Hungarian  government. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Kossuth's  career  in  Hungary  and  America. 
B   Present  government  of  Austria-Hungary. 

76  Turkey  and  the  eastern  question. 

a  The  Ottoman  Turks:  their  conquest  of  Constantinople,  1453  ; 
later  gains  and  losses  of  territory;  extent  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  in  18 14;  its  government;  the  subject  peoples  ruled 
by  the  Turks ;  why  this  rule  has  been  hated. 

b  The  War  of  Greek  Independence,  1821-29:  the  kingdom  of 
Greece  and  its  subsequent  history. 

c  The  Crimean  War,  1854-56:  Russia's  ambitions;  "The  Sick 
Man  of  Europe";   causes  and  results  of  the  war. 

d  The  Russian -Turkish  War  of  1877-78:  revolts  from  Turkish 
rule;  the  "Bulgarian  atrocities";  Russia's  demands  and  at- 
tempt at  enforcement;  Congress  of  Berlin  (1878)  and  its 
settlement  of  the  Eastern  Question. 

e  Turkey  and  the  Balkan  states  today:  their  ambitions  and 
troubles;  the  Macedonian  question;  the  Armenian  ques- 
tion ;  policy  of  England  and  of  Russia  in  the  Near  East. 


EUROPEAN    HISTORY  209 

Map  work: 

Sketch  map  showing  the  states  of  southeastern  Europe  at 
the  present  day. 

77  Development  of  Russia^kTthe  19th  century. 

a  Alexander  1,  1801-25:  French  influence  in  Russia  under 
Catherine  2;  Russia's  part  in  the  Napoleonic  wars;  Alex- 
ander i's  early  liberal  and  later  reactionary  policy. 

b  Nicholas  1,  1825-55:  his  character,  and  domestic  policy; 
beginning  of  the  Slavophil  movement;  the  Polish  revolt  of 
1830;   effects  of  the  Crimean  War  on  Russia. 

c  The  liberal  movement  since  the  Crimean  War:  Alexander  2 ; 
emancipation  of  the  serfs  and  its  effect;  other  liberal  re- 
forms; Polish  revolt  of  1863;  Nihilists  and  their  methods; 
policy  of  "Russianization"  and  its  results. 

d  The  expansion  of  Russia  toward  the  Pacific:  the  trans- 
Siberian  railroad. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  Jews  in  Russia. 
B  The  Siberian  exile  system. 

C  The  present  condition  of  the  peasants  in  Russia. 
D  The  "Russianization"  of  Finland. 
E  The  censorship  of  the  press  in  Russia. 

78  The  expansion  of  Europe. 

a  Revival  of  interest  in  colonial  expansion  toward  the  close  of 
the  19th  century. 

b  European  discovery  and  partition  of  the  African  continent: 
Livingstone  and  Stanley ;  Egypt  and  the  Suez  canal ;  Algiers ; 
the  partitioning  of  1884;   the  Boer  War  and  its  results. 

c  Europe  in  Asia  and  the  Far  East:  English  in  India  and  in 
the  Straits  Settlements;  China's  condition;  her  cessions  to 
European  nations;  Japan  as  a  wodd  power;  her  war  with 
China;   shall  China  be  partitioned? 

d  The  Anglo-Saxons  in  Australasia  and  the  Pacific:  the  voy- 
ages of  Captain  Cook  in  the  18th  century;  English  settle- 
ment at  Botany  bay;  discovery  of  gold  in  Australia;  the 
Australian  Commonwealth,  1901;  Hawaii  and  the  Philip- 
pines. 

e  Comparison  of  the  colonial  power  and  possessions  of  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  Holland. 

Map  work: 

Sketch  map  showing  England  and  the  principal  English 
colonies  at  the  present  day. 


210  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Special  map  work: 

Sketch  map  showing  European  colonies  and  spheres  of  in- 
fluence in  Africa. 

Topic  for  advanced  pupils: 
How  England  governs  her  colonies. 
79  The  material  progress  of  the  19th  century. 

a  The  Industrial  Revolution:   its  effect  on  manufactures,  com- 
merce, population  and  everyday  life. 

b  Inventions  and  improvements  in  means  of  transportation. 

c  Inventions  and  improvements  in  means  of  communication 
and  of  the  spread  of  knowledge. 

d  Changes  in  the  art  of  war  and  attempts  at  prevention  of  war. 

e  Discoveries  promoting  the  health  and  comfort  of  mankind. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  penny  post. 

B  The  average  circulation  of  your  daily  newspaper.    From  what  for- 
eign cities  does  the  current  issue  contain  despatches  ? 

ENGLISH  HISTORY 

English  history  is  recommended  as  a  study  for  the  third  year  of 
the  high  school  course,  and  may  profitably  be  pursued  throughout 
an  entire  year.  English  history  stands  next  to  American  in  close 
interest  to  us,  because  more  American  institutions  may  be  traced 
to  England  than  to  any  other  country.  For  this  reason  a  knowledge 
of  English  history  is  necessary  to  a  thorough  understanding  of  our 
own.  The  influence  which  the  rivalry  of  England  with  France  and 
Spain  had  on  the  exploration  and  occupation  of  America,  that  of 
the  shifting  political  conditions  in  England  from  1600  to  1700  on 
immigration,  the  share  which  the  Petition  of  Right  and  the  Bill  of 
Rights  had  in  shaping  the  first  10  amendments  to  our  Constitution; 
these  are  instances  where  the  development  of  our  own  institutions 
can  not  be  understood  well  without  knowing  English  history  well 
also. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  history  be  studied  first  as  a  narrative 
in  chronologic  order  of  succession;  that  as  the  study  of  each 
period  is  concluded,  a  careful  reexamination  of  the  period  be  made 
topically  as  outlined  in  this  syllabus,  and  that  lastly,  topics  of  pri- 
mary importance,  like  Parliament,  religion,  naval  power,  com- 
merce, manufacturers  and  popular  customs  shall  be  reviewed 
separately  to  note  the  changes  and  the  development  of  the  Eng- 
land of  today  from  the  England  of  the  past. 

The  maps  suggested  in  the  syllabus  should  each  be  carefully 
drawn  by  the  student  in  connection  with  his  chronologic  study  or 


ENGLISH    HISTORY 


211 


his  first  topical  review,  using  the  maps  to  illustrate  and  fix  the  facts 
then  under  discussion.  Other  maps  should  be  studied  to  recall  the 
extent  and  the  power  of  England's  rivals  among  the  nations.  The 
frequent  use  of  pictures  as  illustrative  material  is  urged.  The 
teacher  should  also  see  that  no  student  confines  himself  to  any  one 
textbook,  for  the  work  is  better  understood  and  better  remem- 
bered by  obtaining  the  views  of  different  authors. 

Two  hundred  periods  may  well  be  given  to  English  history  itself ; 
but  some  teachers  who  can  avail  themselves  of  the  maximum  time 
allotment  may  find  it  advantageous  to  use  about  80  periods  for  a 
short  survey  of  general  European  history  before  entering  on  the 
more  limited  field. 


16 


I  Britain 
to 

449  A.D. 


II  Saxon  England 
449-1066. 


Ill  Norman  England  <| 
1066-1154.  I 


20  IV  England  under  the"! 

Plantagenets  1154-1485. 


12  V  Tudor  England,        i 

1485-1603. 

I 

r 


VI  The  Puritan  revolu-  \ 
tion  and  the  royalist  reac-  I 
tion,  1603-88. 


1  The  land. 

2  Early  Britain. 

3  Roman  Britain, 
f    1  Saxons  and  Angles.  ) 
I     2  The  Saxon  supremacy.  \ 

J  3  The  struggle  against  invasions.  2 
1  4  Establishment  of  Christianity.  ,  1 
I     5  Government   and   life   in    Saxon 

[  England.  1 

'    1  Establishment  of  Norman  rule.  2 

2  The  Church  and  the  crusades.  2 

3  Life  of  the  feudal  period.  2 

1  England  and  France.  4 

2  Ireland,  Wales  and  Scotland.  2 

3  Constitutional  development.  6 

4  The  Wars  of  the  Roses.  2 

5  The  Church.  2 

6  Commerce  and  manufactures.  2 

7  Life  in  Plantagenet  England.  2 

1  Establishment   of   centralized   mon- 
archy. 

2  Extension  of  national  power  abroad.       3 

3  The  Church  of  England.  3 

4  The  development  of  trade  and  col- 
onies. 

5  Life  in  Tudor  England. 

1  The    division    between    kings    and 
Parliament.  4 

2  Civil  war  and  commonwealth.  3 

3  Restoration  and  Revolution. 

4  England  and  the  continent. 
I     5  Ireland. 

6  Commerce  and  colonies. 
•    7  Religious  history. 
I    8  Life  and  literature. 


212 


NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 


16 


VII  Constitutional 
monarchy  1 688-1 820. 


19 


VIII  The  British  Empire 
1820-1905. 


Establishment  and  development  of 
constitutional  monarchy. 

Relations  with  Scotland  and  Ireland ; 
the  Jacobites. 

Conflicts  with.France  on  three  conti- 
nents. 

The  colonies. 

Manufactures    and    commerce;     the 
industrial  revolution. 

The  Wesleyan  movement  and  other 
reforms. 

National  life,  learning  and  literature. 

Parliamentary  reform. 

Government  in  England  at  the  pres- 
ent time. 

Taxation  and  trade. 

Industrial  progress. 

Colonies. 

Foreign  affairs. 

Ireland. 

Literature  and  science. 

Social  conditions. 


Outline 
Britain  to  449  A.D. 

1  Britain,  the  land. 
a  Situation. 

b  Physical  features. 
c  Resources. 

Map  showing  the  chief  physical  features  and  natural  resources 
of  Great  Britain. 

2  Early  Britain. 

a  The  earliest  inhabitants  and  the  traces  left  by  them. 

b  Celtic  tribes:    characteristics  and  customs  of  the  Britons; 

the  Druids  and  their  influence;   trade  and  travel  between 

Britain  and  the  continent. 

3  Roman  Britain. 

a  The  Roman  conquest:    Caesar's  invasions  and  results;   the 

real  conquest. 
b  Roman  rule:   Suetonius  and  the  destruction  of  the  Druids; 

Agricola ;  extent  of  Roman  rule ;  effects  of  Roman  rule. 
c  Withdrawal  of  the  Romans:    causes;    remains  of  Roman 

occupation. 
Map  showing  Roman  roads,  towns  and  walls. 
Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  A  picture  of  Britain  gained  from  Caesar's  Commentaries. 


ENGLISH    HISTORY  213 

B  Survivals  of  Celtic  customs,  institutions  and  language. 

C  How  a  Roman  road  was  built. 

D  Description  of  the  Roman  walls  in  Britain. 

II  Saxon  England.  449-1066 

1  Saxons  and  Angles. 

a  The  people:   their  European  home;   customs,  institutions. 
b  The  conquest:    causes  of  the  invasion;   manner  of  coming; 

destruction  of  Roman  and  Celtic  institutions;    sections  of 

Britain  occupied. 

2  The  Saxon  supremacy. 

Development  of  the  Saxon  kingdom:  fusion  among  the  tribes; 
Egbert ;  supremacy  of  Wessex ;  character  of  the  union  estab- 
lished by  Egbert. 

Map  showing  political  and  racial  division  of  Britain  about 
600  A.D. 

3  The  struggle  against  invasions. 

a  The  Northmen:  their  early  home,  race,  manner  of  life, 
their  enterprise  and  daring  in  colonizing;  the  invasion  of 
England. 

b  Great  Saxon  leaders:  Alfred;  treaty  of  Wedmore;  the  Dane- 
law ;   Edgar ;   Dunstan. 

c  The  Danish  kings:  renewed  attacks  and  successes  of  the 
Danes;  dominions  and  government  of  Sweyn  and  Canute. 

d  Edward  the  Confessor  and  Earl  Godwin. 

e  Harold:  his  difficulties;  claim  of  William  of  Normandy; 
the  battle  of  Senlac. 

Map  of  England  in  Alfred's  day. 

4  Establishment  of  Christianity. 

The  early  English  church :  Augustine ;  the  Roman  and  Irish  mis- 
sionaries; council  of  Whitby;  monasteries  and  abbeys;  life 
of  the  monks,  their  routine  industries,  schools,  hospitality. 

5  Government  and  life  in  Saxon  England. 

a  Government:  moots;  courts;  trial  by  ordeal;  the  Witan 
and  its  power ;  selection  and  power  of  the  king.    . 

b  Life  among  the  Saxons  of  the  10th  century:  the  village  and 
its  folkland;  homes  and  furnishings;  food;  clothing;  agri- 
culture ;    trade ;    manufactures. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils : 

A  Origin  and  government  of  the  shires. 

B  The  Saxon  hundred  and  township. 

C  Charlemagne,  his  empire,  government  and  attention  to  education. 
D  Alfred's  government  of  England. 


214  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

E  The  settlement  of  the  Normans  in  France. 

F  The  vikings,  their  education  and  manner  of  life  as  described  in  Du- 

Chaillu's  Viking  Age. 
G  Canute's  letter  to  his  people. 
H  A  ground  plan  of  a  monastery. 
I    Conversion  of  Northumbria. 
J   The  northern  monasteries. 
K  Edmund  Ironside. 

Ill  Norman  England.     1066- 1 154. 

1  Establishment  of  Norman  rule. 

a  Completion  of  the  conquest :  castle  building ;  grants  of  land ; 

crushing  of  Northumbria;    defeat  of  Hereward;    victories 

over  Malcolm;  the  Domesday  book  and  the  Salisbury  Oath. 
b  Characteristics  of  William  the  Conqueror. 
c  Tyranny  of  William  Rufus. 
d  Government  of  Henry  1:    the  Saxon  marriage;    Charter  of 

Liberties;    king's  courts;    Robert's   claim  to    the    throne; 

Tinchebrai;    Normandy  an  English  duchy. 

2  The  Church  and  the  crusades. 

a  Double  control  by  Church  and  state:  organization  of  the 
Church ;  Church  courts  and  what  they  did ;  relations  of  Wil- 
liam 1  and  Gregory  7 ;  strife  of  investitures ;  the  Church  and 
learning;   churchmen  as  statesmen. 

b  The  crusades :  causes ;  interest  of  the  Church  in  the  crusades ; 
Robert  of  Normandy  and  the  first  crusade. 

3  Life  of  the  feudal  period. 

a  Feudal  relations:   duties  of  lord,  vassal  and  serf. 

b  The  feudal  estate:  the  castle;  the  manor;  division  of  lands. 

c  Reasons  for  the  development  of  feudalism. 

d  Differences  between  English  and  continental  feudalism. 

e  Warfare:     weapons;     manner    of    fighting;     treatment    of 

prisoners;    knighthood  and  chivalry. 
/  Antagonism  of  Norman  and  Saxon:   reasons  and  effects. 
g  Education;  manufactures;  trade;  travel;  amusements. 
h  Language  and  literature:    language  of  court,  Church  and 

field ;  language  of  different  sections ;  Geoffry  of  Monmouth 

and  the  legends  of  King  Arthur ;  the  troubadours  and  their 

songs;    the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  Domesday  book.  *  . 

B  Land  holdings  under  the  Normans. 


ENGLISH    HISTORY  215 

C  Ground  plan  of  a  feudal  castle. 

D  Battle  of  Senlac. 

E  Hereward  the  Wake. 

F  Comparison  of  Norman  and  Saxon  characteristics. 

G  Lanfranc. 

IV  England  under  the  Plantagenets.      1 154- 1485. 

1  England  and  France. 

a  Henry  2  and  his  dominions. 

Map  of  the  territory  ruled  by  Henry  2. 
b  Weakness  of  England  under  John  and  Henry  3:    loss  of 
Normandy;   gradual  loss  of  other  possessions. 

Map  showing  England's  possessions  in  France  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Hundred  Years  War. 
c  Beginning  of  the  Hundred  Years  War:    claim  of  Edward  3 
to  the  French  throne;   Crecy;  the   Black  Prince;   Poitiers; 
Treaty  of  Bretigny;  truce  of  1375. 

Map   locating  principal    battles,    sieges  and  strongholds    of 
the  Hundred  Years  War. 
d  Renewal  of  war  with  France:   Henry  5  revives  claim  to  the 
French  crown:    Agincourt;   progress  of  the  war;    Bedford; 
work  of  Joan  of  Arc ;  close  of  the  war. 

Map  showing  conditions  in  France  when  Joan  of  Arc    be- 
gan her  work. 

2  Ireland,  Wales  and  Scotland. 

a  Ireland:  early  history;  Henry  2  in  Ireland;  the  English 
Pale;   life  on  the  island. 

b  Wales:  early  relations  with  England;  the  Welsh  marches; 
conquest  by  Edward  1 ;  revolts  and  reconquest. 

c  Scotland:  border  warfare;  overlordships ;  award  of  Nor- 
ham;  alliance  of  Scotland  and  France;  Dunbar  and  the 
fall  of  Balliol;  rising  of  Wallace;  union  of  England  and 
Scotland;  Bruce;  Bannockburn;  recognition  of  Scottish 
independence  in  1328. 

3  Constitutional  development. 

a  Organized  government:  political  condition  of  England  at 
the  accession  of  Henry  2 ;  character  of  Henry  2 ;  royal 
power  increased  by  conquest  of  the  barons ;  scutage ;  judicial 
reforms;  the  council;  Henry  2  and  the  Church;  sale  of 
charters  by  Richard  1 ;  plans  of  Henry  2  carried  forward  by 
Richard's  justiciars. 


2l6  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

b  Magna  Charta:  King  John  and  his  quarrel  with  the  barons; 
part  taken  by  Stephen  Langton;  granting  the  charter; 
principal  provisions  and  importance  of  the  charter  in  English 
history. 

c  The  first  Parliament:  Henry  3  and  the  Barons' War;  char- 
acteristics of  the  king ;  grievances  of  the  people ;  Provisions 
of  Oxford ;  divisions  among  the  barons  and  results ;  rule  of 
Simon  de  Montfort;  Parliament  of  1265;  Evesham  and  its 
results. 

d  The  Model  Parliament  and  taxation:  Edward  i,  character, 
aims  and  policy;  composition  and  importance  of  the  Model 
Parliament ;  confirmation  of  the  charters. 

e  Parliament  deposes  Edward  2. 

/  House  of  Lords  and  House  of  Commons:  character  of  Ed- 
ward 3 ;  division  of  Parliament  into  two  houses ;  Parliament 
and  taxation ;  the  Good  Parliament. 

g  Parliament  and  Richard  2 :  rule  and  deposition  of  Richard  2 ; 
Parliament  elects  Henry  4;  strength  of  Parliament  under 
Henry  4. 

h  Decline  of  parliamentary  power:  the  regency  and  weak  rule 
of  Henry  6 ;  divisions  among  the  nobles ;  rivalry  of  Lancas- 
ter and  York. 

4  Wars  of  the  Roses. 

a  Causes  for  civil  strife :  condition  of  the  country ;  the  barons ; 
character  of  Henry  6 ;  rivalry  of  Lancaster  and  York. 

b  Course  of  the  war:  division  of  the  country;  battles  of  St 
Albans,  Wakefield  and  Towton;  triumph  and  rule  of  Ed- 
ward 4;  quarrel  between  Edward  4  and  Warwick;  Tewks- 
bury  and  Barnet;  death  of  Edward  4  and  usurpation  of 
Richard  3;  Bosworth  Field  and  accession  of  the  Tudors; 
results  of  the  wars. 

Map  showing  divisions  of  the  country  and  battles  of  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses. 

5  The  Church. 

a  Church  and  state:  strife  between  Henry  2  and  Thomas  a 
Becket ;  quarrel  between  John  and  the  pope ;  establishment 
of  papal  power;  increase  of  the  wealth  of  the  Church;  the 
statutes  of  mortmain,  provisors  and  premunire,  why  they 
were  passed  and  what  they  did. 

b  The  friars  and  their  work. 

c  Lollards:  causes  of  the  Lollard  movement;  Wyclif-  persecu- 
tion of  the  Lollards. 


ENGLISH    HISTORY  21 J 

Commerce  and  manufactures. 

a  Commerce:  merchant  gilds,  merchants  of  the  staple;  fairs; 
the  Hanseatic  League;  merchant  adventurers. 

b  Manufactures:  early  manufactures;  coming  of  the  Flemish 
weavers;   development  of  woolen  manufactures;  craft  gilds. 

Life  in  Plant agenet  England. 

a  General  progress:  union  of  Saxon  and  Norman;  growth  of 
towns;  decrease  of  villeinage;  increasing  wealth  and  im- 
portance of  the  artisan  class. 

I  The  Peasants'  Rising:  the  Black  Death  and  its  effect  on  in- 
dustry; statute  of  laborers;  growth  of  democratic  senti- 
ment ;  Wat  Tyler's  rebellion  and  its  overthrow ;  permanent 
results. 

c  Warfare:  weapons  and  armor;  religious  military  orders, 
their  organization,  power  and  decadence ;  decline  of  chivalry ; 
use  of  gunpowder. 

d  Intellectual  progress :  development  of  the  English  language ; 
Chaucer ;  Wyclif ;  Langland ;  cathedral  building ;  rise  of  the 
universities ;  introduction  of  printing. 

e  Travel  and  amusements ;  home  life  of  noble  and  peasant. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 

A  The  principles  of  Magna  Charta  that  have  become  embodied  in 
!    f    English  and  American  government. 

B  The  interdict  and  the  excommunication. 

C   The  contest  between  Gregory  7  and  Henry  4  of  Germany. 

D  A  summary  of  the  relations  between  the  Papacy  and  English  sov- 
ereigns covering  the  reigns  of  William  1,  Henry  2,  John  and  Ed- 
ward 1. 

E  A  comparison  of  the  Peasants  Rising  and  the  Jacquerie. 

F  Life  in  England  as  portrayed  by  Chaucer. 

G  Feudal  England  as  seen  in  Ivanhoe. 

H  The  Steelyard. 

I    The  restrictions  and  dangers  of  commerce  in  the  Plantagenet  period. 

J    Trade  routes  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

K  A  medieval  fair. 

L  The  introduction  of  the  printing  press  into  England. 

M  The  early  use  of  gunpowder  in  war. 

N  The  character  of  Richard  3  as  seen  in  Shakspere's  Richard  3. 

Tudor  England.     1485-1603. 

The  establishment  of  centralized  monarchy. 

a  Henry  7:  condition  of  the  country,  Church,  nobles  and 
middle  classes  after  the  Wars  of  the  Roses;  law  against 
maintenance  and  livery;  the  Court  of  the  Star  Chamber; 
benevolences;  artillery;  avoidance  of  foreign  wars. 


2l8  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

b  Henry  8 :  the  personal  government  of  Henry  8  as  seen  in  his 
treatment  of  his  wives,  his  ministers  and  Parliament;  di- 
vorce of  Katherine ;  Act  of  Supremacy ;  confiscation  of  the 
monasteries;  creation  of  a  "new nobility." 

c  The  nation's  acceptance  of  despotism:  growing  power  of  the 
middle  classes;  control  of  Parliament  by  the  Crown;  gen- 
eral characteristics  and  policy  of  the  Tudors. 

2  Extension  of  national  power  abroad. 

a  The  Tudor  peace  policy :  marriage  alliances  and  diplomacy  of 
Henry  7 ;  the  foreign  policy  of  Wolsey ;  the  caution  of  Eliza- 
beth. 

b  The  war  with  Spain :  causes  of  the  war ;  the  Armada  and  its 
effect  on  national  spirit ;  defeat  of  the  Armada ;  Elizabethan 
seamen. 

c  England's  position  at  the  close  of  the  Tudor  period. 

Map  showing  Europe  and  Spanish  Empire,  1550. 

3  The  Church  of  England  and  the  rise  of  Puritanism. 

a  Condition  of  the  church  at  the  opening  of  the  period :  wealth ; 
judicial  courts;  political  power  and  influence. 

b  Rise  of  Protestantism:  doctrines  of  Wyclif ;  Luther's  revolt; 
attitude  of  Henry  8  toward  Luther's  teachings. 

c  The  break  with  Rome:  divorce  of  Katherine;  dissolution  of 

j         the  monasteries;  translation  of  the  Bible;  the  Ten  Articles; 

Act  of  Supremacy ;  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace ;  the  Six  Articles ; 

treatment  accorded  to  heretics ;  the  church  as  left  by  Henry  8. 

d  The  Protestant  revolution  under  Edward  6  and  his  ministers : 
measures  of  the  government ;  attitude  of  the  nation. 

e  Catholic  reaction:  Mary's  aims;  the  attitude  of  Parliament 
and  the  nation  toward  Mary;  the  Spanish  marriage;  re- 
union with  Rome;  persecutions;  results  of  Mary's  policy. 

f  The  moderation  of  Elizabeth:  repeal  of  heresy  laws;  the 
Thirty -nine  Articles ;  growth  of  Puritan  ideas ;  effects  of  the 
Armada  and  the  wars  in  the  Netherlands  on  religious  senti- 
ment. 

g  The  Church  in  Ireland  and  Scotland. 

4  Trade  and  colonies. 

a  Trade:  decay  of  gilds  and  trade  organizations;  rise  of  the 
middle  class ;  debasement  and  restoration  of  coinage ;  com- 
ing of  artisans  from  the  continent;  gain  of  Flemish  trade; 
laws  protecting  manufactures  and  regulating  trade;  estab- 
lishment of  navy. 


ENGLISH    HISTORY  2IO, 

b  Colonial  enterprise:   explorations  of  the  Cabots,   Drake  and 
Raleigh;     colonizing    attempts    of    Gilbert    and    Raleigh; 
establishment  of  trading  companies. 
5  Life  in  Tudor  England. 

a  Social  and  economic  changes:  modes  of  living;  the  house, 
city  and  country ;  decay  of  old  towns ;  rise  of  new  centers  of 
population;  wheat  fields  versus  sheep  pastures;  increase  of 
pauperism  and  its  causes;  laws  for  relief  of  the  poor;  intro- 
duction of  firearms. 

b  Intellectual  awakening:  growth  of  the  spirit  of  adventure 
and  enterprise;  the  New  Learning,  its  nature;  Erasmus, 
More,  Colet;  establishment  of  new  schools  and  colleges;  the 
drama;  the  theater;  Shakspere  and  Bacon. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  Utopia  of  Sir  Thomas  More  and  America. 
B  The  revolt  of  the  Netherlands. 
C  Why  heretics  were  put  to  death. 
D  Spanish  power  in  the  16th  century. 
E  Political  reasons  for  the  coquetry  of  Elizabeth. 
F  Achievements  of  Elizabethan  seamen. 
G  The  execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
H  The  gild  and  the  modern  trade-union. 
/    The  earliest  attempts  of  the  English  to  colonize  America. 
J    The  poor  laws  of  Elizabeth. 
K  A  day  at  Elizabeth's  court. 

VI  The  Puritan  revolution  and  Royalist  reaction  1603-88. 

1  Division  between  kings  and  Parliament. 

a  Beginning  of  strife:  change  in  national  spirit  about  1600; 
personality  of  James  1;  Hampton  Court  Conference;  issues 
in  the  first  Parliament;  Gunpowder  plot;  divine  right  of 
kings;  rule  of  favorites;  Bacon  and  the  revival  of  impeach- 
ments. 

b  Increasing  differences  between  Parliament  and  the  Crown: 
characteristics  of  Charles  2 ;  the  Petition  of  Right ;  tonnage 
and  poundage;  Laud's  policy  and  religious  strife;  the  disso- 
lution of  1629  and  the  emigration  of  Puritans;  monopolies; 
ship  money  and  Hampden's  resistance;  Wentworth's  meas- 
ures ;  Laud  and  the  outbreak  in  Scotland ;  the  Short  Parlia- 
ment. 

c  The  Long  Parliament:  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament; 
impeachment  and  execution  of  Strafford ;  measures  limiting 
the  power  of  the  king;  division  of  Parliament  on  religious 
questions;    intriguing  of  Charles  for  support;    the  Grand 


220  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Remonstrance;    attempt  to  seize  the  five  members;    civil 
war. 

2  Civil  war  and  the  commonwealth. 

a  The  first  civil  war:  rival  parties,  their  leaders  and  support; 
outbreak  of  the  war ;  Cromwell  and  the  Ironsides ;  Scottish 
alliance;  Solemn  League  and  Covenant ;  Marston  Moor;  di- 
visions in  the  parliamentary  party;  the  Self-denying  Ordi- 
nance ;  the  New  Model ;  Naseby ;  negotiations  of  the  king. 

b  The  second  civil  war:  alliance  of  the  king  with  the  Scots; 
the  battle  of  Preston ;  Pride's  Purge ;  trial  and  execution  of 
the  king. 

c  The  Commonwealth:  the  Rump  Parliament,  conquest  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland;  Cromwell  as  Lord  Protector;  con- 
stitutional experiment ;  fall  of  the  commonwealth. 

Map  showing  how  England  was  divided  between  Puritan  and 
Cavalier  and  the  battlefields  of  the  Puritan  Revolution. 

3  Restoration  and  revolution. 

a  Political  conditions:  character  and  policy  of  the  king;  the 
nation  and  the  doctrine  of  nonresistance ;  Parliament  and 
taxation ;  the  royal  dispensing  power. 

b  Religious  settlement:  Act  of  Uniformity;  penal  legislation 
against  dissent;  condition  of  the  Catholics  and  aims  of  the 
king. 

c  Charles  2  and  Louis  14:  aims  of  the  French  king;  war  be- 
tween England  and  Holland;  the  secret  treaty  of  Dover; 
the  Declaration  of  Indulgence ;  the  Test  Act ;  Titus  Oates ; 
the  Exclusion  Bill;  Whigs  and  Tories. 

d  Overthrow  of  the  Stuarts :  national  fear  of  a  Catholic  despot- 
ism ;  assertion  of  dispensing  power  by  the  king ;  Catholics  in 
office;  a  standing  army;  Declaration  of  Indulgence;  pe- 
tition and  trial  of  the  seven  bishops. 

e  William  of  Orange:  position  and  character  of  William;  the 
summons  to  England ;  flight  of  James  2 ;  Parliament  and  the 
succession. 

/  Results  of  the  Revolution :  Bill  of  Rights ;  Act  of  Toleration ; 
Act  of  Settlement. 

4  England  and  the  continent. 

a  James  1 :  foreign  policy  of  James  1 ;  the  Thirty  Years  War. 
b  Cromwell:    Navigation  Act;    war  with  Holland;    war  with 

Spain;    England's  influence  in  Europe  during  Cromwell's 

protectorate. 


ENGLISH    HISTORY  221 

c  The  restored  Stuarts:  wars  between  England  and  Holland; 
secret  alliance  of  Charles  2  and  Louis  14 ;  the  designs  of  Louis 
14. 

Ireland. 

Ireland  reconquered:  condition  of  Ireland  in  1600;  Went- 
worth;  rebellion  of  1641 ;  conquest  by  Cromwell;  the  Crom- 
wellian  settlement. 

Commerce  and  colonies. 

a  Colonies  in  America :  colonies  founded  in  America  during  the 
Stuart  period;  influence  on  the  American  colonies  of  the 
civil  and  religious  dissensions  of  the  mother  country;  the 
navigation  laws;  war  with  Spain,  Jamaica;  war  with  Hol- 
land, the  New  Netherlands. 

b  Commerce:  trading  posts  in  India;  some  of  the  principal 
articles  of  commerce  in  the  17th  century. 

Religious  history. 

a  An  age  of  religious  intolerance:  causes  of  the  intolerance; 
religious  parties  of  the  period ;  laws  to  establish  conformity ; 
the  King  James  version ;  effects  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot  on 
the  position  of  the  Catholics  in  England ;  Laud  and  his  policy ; 
attitude  of  Scotland  toward  the  use  of  the  prayer  book ;  the 
church  question  in  Parliament;  religious  settlement  of  the 
Restoration;  royal  tolerance;  national  intolerance;  re- 
ligious conditions  at  the  close  of  the  period. 

Life  and  literature. 

a  Life:  manner  of  life,  dress  and  amusements  of  Cavalier  and 

Roundhead. 
b  Literature :    establishment  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
and  its  significance ;  King  James  version  and  its  influence  on 
the  English  language;   the  first  newspapers;   Milton;   Bun- 
yan;  Newton;  Harvey. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  Gunpowder  plot. 
B  Plantation  of  Ulster. 
C  Spanish  journey. 
D  Impeachment  of  Strafford. 
E  Attack  on  the  five  members. 
F  Trial  of  King  Charles  2. 
G  Fall  of  the  Rump  Parliament. 
H  Flight  of  Charles  Stuart  from  Worcester. 
/  Cromwell's  work. 
J  The  plague  of  1665. 
K  The  great  fire  of  1666. 
L  Jeffreys  on  the  Western  Circuit. 
M  Trial  of  the  seven  bishops. 


222  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

VII  Constitutional  monarchy  1688- 1820. 

1  Establishment  and  development  of  constitutional  monarchy. 

a  Constitutional  gains:  Mutiny  Act;  Toleration  Act;  Bill  of 
Rights ;  Act  of  Settlement. 

b  Growth  of  political  parties:  Whigs  and  Tories;  the  Sep- 
tennial Bill. 

c  The  Cabinet :  party  government  through  the  Cabinet ;  Horace 
Walpole ;  methods  of  controlling  Parliament ;  personality  and 
influence  of  the  Hanoverian  kings. 

2  Scotland  and  Ireland. 

a  The  Revolution  in  Scotland:  Claverhouse;  the  union  of 
1707;  the  Jacobites;  the  risings  of  17 15  and  1745. 

b  Ireland:  course  of  King  James  2;  siege  of  Londonderry; 
battle  of  Boyne,  the  treaty  of  Limerick  and  now  it  was 
disregarded;  condition  of  Ireland  through  the  18th  century; 
home  rule  1 782-1800;  the  rebellion  of  1798;  the  United 
Kingdom  1801. 

3  Conflicts  with  France  on  three  continents. 

a  Rivalry  of  William  3  and  Louis  14:  French  support  of  the 
Stuarts ;  league  against  Louis ;  La  Hogue ;  the  war  in  Amer- 
ica ;  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick. 

b  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession:  the  causes;  the  allies; 
Marlborough  and  his  companions;  Gibraltar,  Acadia  and 
Hudson  bay;  attitude  of  English  parties  toward  the  war; 
treaty  of  Utrecht. 

c  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession:  causes;  allies;  Detingen, 
Fontenoy,  Louisburg;  Treaty  of  Aix  la  Chapelle. 

1  War  continued  in  the  colonies:  strife  for  the  Ohio  valley; 
Braddock's  defeat;  rivalry  with  the  French  in  India;  the 
work  of  DuPleix  and  Clive. 

e   Seven  Years  War:    causes;    allies;    Pitt's  administration; 
British  successes;  Wolfe;  Treaty  of  Paris. 
The  Revolution :  aid  from  France  for  the  American  colonies ; 
the  allies  against  England ;  Yorktown ;  treaties  of  peace. 

g  The  French  Revolution:  conditions  in  France  1789;  the 
English  feeling  at  first  concerning  the  French  Revolution; 
the  Reign  of  Terror;  war  on  the  revolutionists;  rise  of  Na- 
poleon ;  battle  of  the  Nile ;  the  Treaty  of  Amiens. 

h  The  war  with  Napoleon:  coalitions  against  Napoleon;  the 
work  of  Nelson;  Austerlitz  and  Jena;  Wellesley  and  the 
Peninsular  War;  commercial  warfare  leading  to  war  with 
the  United  States;  Napoleon  in  Russia;  Elba;  Waterloo; 
St  Helena. 


ENGLISH    HISTORY  223 

Colonies. 

a  America:  colonial  policy  of  European  nations;  English  re- 
strictions on  colonial  trade;  aims  of  George  3;  Whigs  and 
Tories  in  England  and  America;  outbreak  of  the  American 
Revolution ;  war  in  New  England ;  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence; war  in  the  Middle  States;  Saratoga  and  the 
French  alliance ;  war  in  the  South ;  Yorktown  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  American  colonies;  loss  of  other  colonies; 
change  in  the  treatment  of  colonies. 

b  India:  the  East  India  Co.  1750;  French  rivalry;  Clive  and 
Dupleix;  conquest  of  Bengal;  methods  of  governing  India; 
Warren  Hastings;  the  Mahratta  War. 

c  Canada:  conquest;  loyalty  during  the  American  Revolu- 
tion; the  Hudson's  Bay  Co.;  constitution  granted  1791. 

d  Australia  and  New  Zealand :  discovery;  convict  settlements ;' 
wool  growing. 

e  Minor  colonies:  the  West  India  colonies;  sugar  raising; 
slavery;  Cape  Colony,  acquired,  surrendered,  regained; 
Gibraltar,  St  Helena. 

Manufactures  and  commerce:  the  industrial  revolution. 

a  Changes  in  manufacturing :  the  coming  of  the  French  Hugue- 
nots ;  coal  mines  and  iron  works ;  inventions  and  the  use  of 
machinery ;  the  factory  system ;  new  centers  of  population ; 
effects  on  the  working  classes. 

b  Agriculture:  improvements  in  tillage  and  breeding;  de- 
crease of  small  landholders. 

c  Canals. 

Reform  movements. 

a  Religious  reforms :  religious  conditions  in  the  first  part  of  the 
1 8th  century;  the  Wesleys  and  Whitfield. 

b  Philanthropic  reforms:  Howard  and  the  prisons;  Wilber- 
force  and  the  slave  trade ;  changes  in  penal  laws ;  care  of  the 
poor. 

c  Political  reforms:  Pitt's  influence  in  purifying  politics; 
Burke  and  economic  reforms ;  freedom  of  the  press. 

National  life  and  literature. 

a  Life  of  the  people :  dress  and  social  customs;  roads;  means 
and  methods  of  travel. 

b  Banking  and  finance:  Bank  of  England;  national  debt; 
South  Sea  Bubble. 

c  Education:   Sunday  schools  and  day  schools. 

d  Writers:   Pope,  Swift,  Addison,  DeFoe,  Adam  Smith. 


224  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  The  siege  of  Londonderry. 
B  The  massacre  of  Glencoe. 
C  Blenheim. 

D  The  union  of  Scotland  and  England. 
E  The  coffee  house. 
F  The  battle  of  Plassey. 
G  Pitt  the  war  minister. 
H  Pitt  and  the  American  colonies. 

/  A  comparison  of  political  conditions  in  England  and  America  in  1765. 
J  Nelson  at  Trafalgar. 
K  Watt  and  Stephenson. 

VIII  The  British  Empire  182 0-1905. 

1  Parliamentary  reform. 

a  The  "rotten  boroughs":  reforms  demanded  after  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution ;  effects  of  the  French  Revolution  on  public 
sentiment;  the  contest  of  1832;  results. 

b  The  Chartists :  Chartist  demands  and  their  treatment ;  exten- 
sion of  suffrage  in  1867  and  1884. 

2  Government  in  England  at  the  present  time. 

a  The  Constitution :  its  nature ;  how  it  may  be  changed. 

b  The  voters. 

c  Parliament :  the  peerage :  the  House  of  Lords  and  its  com- 
position; the  House  of  Commons,  how  chosen  and  how 
dissolved. 

d  Executive  powers:  the  place  of  the  king  in  the  government; 
the  Cabinet,  how  chosen;  powers  and  duties  of  the  Cabinet. 

e  The  judiciary. 

3  Taxation  and  trade. 

a  The   Corn   Laws:    conflicting   views    of   Peel   and    Cobden; 

repeal  of  the  Corn  Law 
b  The  Navigation  Law:  repeal  of  the  Navigation  Law;  English 

imports  and  exports;   effect  of  the  free  trade  policy  on  the 

development  of  English  trade. 
c  Present  methods  of  taxation. 

4  Industrial  progress. 

a  Public  improvements:  the  development  of  the  locomotive; 

railroad   building;   McAdam   and   Telford;    the    telegraph; 

cheap  postage;  steamship  lines. 
b  Trade-unions. 
c  Present  manufacturing  centers. 

Map  showing   manufacturing  and  commercial  cities   uf  tH9 
British  Isles. 


ENGLISH    HISTORY  225 

5  Colonies. 

a  Canada:  The  Hudson's  Bay  Co.;  the  rebellion  of  1837;  the 
Dominion;  the  Constitution  of  1867;  development  of  the 
country. 

b  India:  enlargement  of  British  territory;  the  Sepoy  Mutiny; 
proclamation  of  the  empire  1876;  Burma;  the  present  gov- 
ernment and  condition  of  India. 

c  Australasia :  discovery  of  gold ;  development  of  the  country ; 
confederation  of  1901. 

d  South  Africa:  rivalry  of  Dutch  and  English  settlers;  in- 
dustries and  development  of  southern  Africa;  the  South 
Africa  Company  and  its  work;  the  Boer  Wars;  present 
conditions. 

e  Possessions  and  minor  colonies:  the  Suez  canal,  how  ac- 
quired; the  English  in  Egypt;  Central  Africa  and  South 
Africa;  strongholds  and  coaling  stations. 

c   Relations  of  the  colonies  to  the  home  government :  methods 
of  British  rule ;  growth  of  the  imperial  idea. 
Map  showing  British  empire  with  dates  of  acquisition  of  its 
dependencies. 

6  Foreign  affairs. 

a  Rivalries  and  alliances  with  other  countries:  the  Crimean 
War,  causes,  allies,  results;  English  attitude  toward  the 
Civil  War  in  the  United  States ;  the  Alabama  Claims  and  the 
principle  of  arbitration;  the  Berlin  Congress;  the  English 
occupation  of  Egypt. 

b  England's  position  among  the  nations  of  today. 

7  Ireland. 

a  The  famine  of  1845-49:  causes  and  results ;  emigration. 
b  Land  tenure :  the  Irish  Land  Acts ;  the  Land  League. 
c  Agitation  for  Home  Rule:   the  Fenians;   Parnell  and  Glad- 
stone. 

8  Literature. 

Leading  English  authors  of  the  1 9th  century :  poets ;  novelists ; 
essayists  and  critics;  historians;  scientific  writers. 

9  Social  conditions. 

a  Agriculture:  land  tenure  in  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland; 
decline  of  agricultural  prosperity ;  reasons  for  the  decline  of 
agriculture. 

b  Labor:  condition  of  laborers  in  factories  before  1830; 
Shaftesbury  and  the  reform  of  factory  laws;  present  con- 
dition of  labor. 


226  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

c  Philanthropic  reforms:   criminal  laws;  prison  management; 

relief  of  the  poor ;  tenement  house  reforms ;  social  effects  of 

the  writings  of  Dickens,  Reade,  Kingsley  and  Besant. 
d  Growth  of  cities:    causes  for  the  rapid  growth  of  cities; 

municipal    ownership    of    street    railways,    gas    companies, 

waterworks  and  other  public  utilities. 
e  Education:    the  Education  Acts  and  their  effects;    English 

schools  and  universities. 

Topics  for  advanced  pupils: 
A  How  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  was  passed. 
B  The  oppression  of  children  in  factories. 
C  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade. 
D  Imprisonment  for  debt. 
E  Imperial  federation. 
F  Growth  of  religious  toleration  in  England  as  seen  in  the  legislation 

toward  Catholics  and  Jews. 
G  The  life  and  influence  of  Victoria. 
H  The  power  of  Edward  7  compared  with  that  of  some  one  of    his 

predecessors. 

THE  NEW  AMERICAN  HISTORY 

The  recent  substitution  of  America  for  "  United  States"  in  desig- 
nating the  location  of  the  ambassadorial  and  consular  offices  of 
this  country  is  an  external  evidence  of  a  fundamental  change  that 
has  come  into  our  conceptions  of  our  own  history.  The  scientific 
investigations  of  distinguished  foreign  scholars  like  DeTocqueville, 
Von  Hoist  and  Bryce  have  been  followed  by  the  creation  of  a  new 
school  of  American  historians  whose  work  has  been  to  show  that 
the  American  Constitution  was  not  "struck  off  at  a  given  time  by 
the  brain  and  purpose  of  man,"  but  that  the  history  of  America, 
like  that  of  every  other  country,  has  been  an  outgrowth  from  pre- 
vious conditions — that  America  has  never  occupied  an  isolated 
position,  but  that  it  has  been  influenced  throughout  its  develop- 
ment by  other  nations  and  that  it  has  in  its  turn  influenced  them ; 
that  we  can  not  understand  present  conditions  in  our  own  country 
without  studying  how  these  conditions  have  come  to  be;  that 
patriotism  no  longer  means  adhesion  to  the  statement,  "My 
country,  right  or  wrong,  My  country,"  but  a  united  effort  on  the 
part  of  all  its  citizens  to  make  the  country  right. 

This  new  point  of  view  of  the  historian  has  been  reflected  in  the 
textbook  written  for  the  schools.  This  no  longer  presents  in  flam- 
boyant style  the  traditional  spectacular  events  that  collectively 
have  been  called  "the  history  of  the  United  States,"  but  it  treats 


AMERICAN    HISTORY  227 

the  history  of  the  country  as  a  natural  development.  It  is  no 
longer  a  heterogeneous  collection  of  miscellaneous  facts  chrono- 
logically arranged — but  it  is  an  orderly  presentation  of  related 
events.  It  is  not  based  on  rumor,  traditions,  theories  and  pre- 
viously conceived  ideas,  but  on  careful  investigation  of  the  authori- 
ties used.  It  does  not  assume  that  "  advanced  work  in  history  con- 
sists in  reading  larger  books  and  more  of  them,"  but  it  adapts  both 
matter  and  method  to  the  capacities  of  those  who  are  to  use  it. 
The  textbook  for  the  elementary  and  grammar  grades  presents  the 
picturesque  and  imaginative  side  of  history  in  order  that  the  child 
may  have  a  vivid  picture  of  the  conspicuous  events  of  the  past. 
The  textbook  for  the  secondary  school  places  emphasis  on  under- 
lying causes  and  on  the  development  of  great  movements  in  order 
that  the  boy  may  appreciate  the  unity  of  history. 

The  new  teacher  of  American  history  is  both  a  cause  and  a  result 
of  the  new  textbook.  He  appreciates  the  importance  of  treating 
American  history  as  a  continuous  development  from  European  his- 
tory— not  as  a  disconnected  series  of  special  creations.  He  under- 
stands that  all  society  is  organic  in  character  and  that  therefore 
history  can  not  be  taught  as  a  description  of  inorganic  matter.  He 
knows  that  the  essential  in  teaching  the  American  Constitution  is 
to  teach  its  underlying  principles  as  they  were  developed  from 
political  conditions,  not  to  teach  isolated,  unrelated  facts.  He 
does  not  "put  the  cart  before  the  horse,"  to  use  the  homely  phrase, 
and  attempt  to  teach  civics  as  a  disconnected  subject  made  up  of 
abstractions  and  constantly  fluctuating  facts,  but  he  teaches  it  as 
an  outgrowth  of  the  political  conditions  of  the  country.  He 
realizes  that  it  is  far  more  important  to  know  why  every  state  in 
the  Union  has  its  own  Constitution  and  how  the  functions  of  the 
state  government  resemble  or  differ  from  those  of  the  federal 
government  than  it  is  to  learn  by  heart  the  names  of  the  state 
officers  and  the  amount  of  salary  attached  to  each  office.  He  com- 
prehends that  in  material  as  well  as  in  spiritual  affairs  ' '  the  things 
that  are  seen  are  temporal,  but  the'  things  that  are  unseen  are 
eternal,"  and  he  teaches  not  the  boundaries  of  various  assembly 
and  senatorial  districts,  but  what  were  the  historical  conditions 
that  gave  rise  to  a  representative  legislative  body  and  why  that 
body  was  composed  of  two  houses.  He  uses  the  newspaper,  not  as 
a  purveyor  of  transient  gossip,  but  as  an  intelligent  aid  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  past  by  the  present.  He  welcomes  pictures  in  his 
work,  not  that  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  discovering  the  Pacific,  but  that 
of  the  New  England  town  with  its  meeting  house  and  its  school- 


228  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

house ;  not  the  picture  of  the  battle  scene  that  might  be  labeled  any- 
one of  a  hundred  conflicts,  but  the  plan  of  a  Southern  plantation 
showing  the  relative  location  of  its  numerous  buildings;  not  the' 
photograph  of  the  reigning  political  boss,  but  the  seal  of  the  federal 
government  and  what  it  signifies.  He  utilizes  outline  maps,  not  to 
locate  the  counties  in  a  state,  but  to  show  the  territories  explored 
by  different  nationalities  and  the  routes  taken  by  the  pioneers  in 
their  westward  march.  He  uses  a  hundred  tools  in  his  work  where 
his  unskilled  predecessor  used  but  one,  and  the  resulting  product 
is  not  a  crude  caricature  of  the  past  but  a  faithful,  scientific  and  ar- 
tistic delineation  of  the  development  of  America  from  Europe. 

The  teacher  of  today  who  teaches  American  history  appreciates 
Professor  Maitland's  apostrophe  of  the  map  of  England — "that 
most  wonderful  of  all  palimpsests r"  He  sees  in  the  map  of  America 
another  most  wonderful  palimpsest  whereon  have  been  written  the 
hopes  and  aspirations  and  discouragements,  the  failures  and  suc- 
cesses of  Spaniard  and  Frenchman,  Swede  and  Hollander  and  Eng- 
lishman, of  monk  and  friar,  of  fur  trader  and  lumberman,  of  fron- 
tiersman and  immigrant,  of  political  refugee  and  religious  enthusiast. 
How  indeed,  he  may  say,  can  he  know  the  real  America  unless  he 
knows  it  in  its  European  home  ?  How  can  he  train  those  who  may 
be  called  on  to  legislate  for  the  Italians  in  their  American  home 
unless  they  have  been  taught  the  failures  and  successes  of  that 
great  uprising  for  independence  and  unity  that  culminated  in  the 
establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy — how  understand  the  Ger- 
man of  the  Northwest  without  a  knowledge  of  the  idealism  in  politics 
art,  literature,  and  music  that  found  expression  in  the  revolutionary 
uprising  of  '48  and  sent  the  flower  of  German  youth  to  our  shores — 
how  deal  in  wisdom  and  patience  with  the  Hungarians  coming  to  us 
unless  we  realize  the  passionate  aspirations  for  political  liberty  of 
the  Hungarians  in  Europe — how  assimilate  the  nearly  one  million 
foreigners  who  come  annually  to  our  shores  unless  we  know  why 
they  left  their  native  land  as  well  as  why  they  have  come  to  us? 

If  then  the  new  American  history  strikes  its  roots  deep  down  into 
European  soil  it  is  because  the  hight  and  the  strength  of  the  tree 
demands  it  and  because  its  very  life  depends  on  it.  The  committee 
presents  the  outline  of  American  history  in  the  hope  that  it  may  be 
of  service  to  the  teacher  of  today. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY 


229 


n 
n 


1 

Discovery 

and  exploration 

before  1607. 

II 

Southern 
colonies, 
1607-1760. 


Ill 

New  England, 
1620-1760. 

IV 
Middle  colonies, 
1609-1760. 


V 

Colonies 
in  the 

1 8th  century, 
to  1760. 

VI 
Union  and 
independence, 
1760-83. 

VII 

Critical  period, 
1783-89. 

VIII 
Federalist 
supremacy, 
1789-1801. 
IX 
Jeffersonian 
Republicans, 
1801-17. 


X 

Reorganization, 
1817-29. 


XI 

National 

democracy, 

1829-44. 


General   survey  of  the  field 


1  Land  and  resources. 

2  Discovery  of  America. 

3  Exploration  and  early  settlement  before 

Jamestown,  149  2- 1607. 

4  Virginia,    1607-1760,  a  typical  Southern 

colony. 

5  Maryland,  a  typical  proprietary  colony. 

6  Carolinas  and  Georgia,  the  Southern  fron- 

tier colonies. 
Beginnings  of  colonization  of  New  Eng- 
land. 

8  Early  Massachusetts,  a  typical  New  Eng- 

land colony,  1629-50. 

9  New  England,  163 6- 17 60,  typical  devel- 

opment of  American  institutions. 

10  Dutch  and  English  in  New  York. 

11  Pennsylvania,  "A  Quaker  Experiment  in 

Government";    New  Jersey  and  Dela- 


r   7 


f  12  Political     and     economic      development. 

1700-50. 

!  13  Struggle  between  France  and  England  for 
]  North  America,  1 6 89- 1 7 63. 

I  14  The  colonies  in  1760;  political,  social  andi 
[  economic  conditions ;  comparisons. 

J  15  Causes  of  the  Revolution,  1760-74. 

]  16  The  Revolution,  1775-83. 

{  17  Confederation  and  Constitution. 


18  Organization  of  the  government. 

19  Foreign  relations,  1 793-1 800. 

20  Fall  of  the  Federalists. 

21  Domestic  policy  of  the  Republicans. 

22  Expansion. 

23  Struggle  for  neutral  rights. 

24  Economic  reorganization. 

25  Westward    migration    and    internal    im- 

provements. 

26  Slavery  and  the  Missouri  Compromise. 

2  7  Monroe  Doctrine  and  Panama  Congress. 

28  Political  reorganization  and  triumph  of 

Jackson. 

29  Nullification  in  South  Carolina. 

30  Overthrow  of  the  United  States   Bank; 

financial  questions. 

31  Antislavery  agitation,  1831-38. 


1- 

1; 

2 
2 


23O  NEW   YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 


XII  [  32  Annexation  of  Texas,  and  the  Mexican 

Slavery  in  the  !  War. 

territories,  f  33  Struggle  over  slavery  in  the  territories 

1844-60.  [ 

XIII  f  1 

Secession  and  the    !  34  Secession  of  the  Southern  States. 

Civil  War,  ]  35  The  Civil  War,  1861-65.  i 

1860-65.  •   (  J 

f  36    Reconstruction,  the  New  South,  and  the 
Xiy  race  problem. 

Problems  of  '  37  Political  problems:    civil  service,    foreign 

ce  \  relations,  municipal  government. 

18 6^-1004  '  38  Economic     problems:      currency,      tariff 

5"  9   4'  trusts,  labor,  transportation. 

t  39  Summary  and  review  of  American  history.!     1 

Outline 
Discovery  and  explorations  before  1607. 

1  The  land  and  its  resources. 
a  Physical  features. 

b  Effect  of  this  environment. 

c  Availability  of  land  of  United  States  for  building  a  nation. 

Map  work: 

Indicate  on  outline  map  the  most  important  physical  features 
of  America. 

2  Discovery  of  America. 

How  and  why  the  discovery  came  in  1492.     Important  results. 

a  Why  the  Norse  discoveries  were  in  no  sense  a  true  discovery 
of  America. 

b  European  conditions  at  close  of  1 5th  century  leading  to  dis- 
covery. 

c  Columbus:  his  early  career  and  how  it  trained  him  for  dis- 
covery ;   ideas ;   attempts. 

d  The  discovery. 

e  Columbus's  character  and  place  in  history. 

/  Conclusion :  the  importance  of  the  discovery ;  its  effect  on  com- 
merce, colonies,  wars,  diplomacy,  industrial  life. 

Additional  topic: 
The  naming  of  America. 

Map  work: 

On  an  outline  map,  trace  Columbus's  first  voyage,  indicating 
dates  when  points  were  reached. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY  27,1 

3  Explorations     and     early    settlements,     before     Jamestown, 

1492-1607. 
a  Spanish:    objects;    regions;   reasons  for  failure. 
b  French:    objects;   regions;   reasons  for  failure. 
c  English:   objects;  regions;  reasons  for  failure. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Character  of  Spanish  rule. 

B  The  contest  between  the  Huguenot  and  Spanish  colonies  in  Florida. 
C  Spanish  motives  and  policy. 

D  The  Elizabethan  seamen;    their  character  and  work. 
E  The  Spanish  Armada,  and  Spain's  loss  of  sea  power.     Why  is  this 
event  important  in  American  history? 

Map  work: 

a  The  regions  discovered  or  explored  by  each  nation  to  be 
pointed  out  on  map. 

b  On  outline  map  of  world,  represent  voyages  of  Columbus, 
Cabots,  Vasco  da  Gama,  Magellan,  Verrazano,  Drake,  with 
dates,  and  in  colors  (Spanish,  yellow;  English,  red; 
French,  blue). 

c  On  outline  map  of  United  States,  show  in  colors  (as  above) 
the  explorations  or  settlements  of  Spanish  (De  Leon, 
Cortes,  Pizarro,  De  Vaca,  Coronado,  De  Soto,  and  St 
Augustine) ;  French  (Cartier,  Huguenot  colonies,  Acadia) ; 
English  (Raleigh  colonies). 

d  Map  of  world  showing  Spanish  possessions  after  seizure  of 
Portugal  (1580). 

II  Southern  colonies,  1607- 1760. 

4  Virginia,  a  typical  southern  colony. 

a  New  motives  and  methods  of  colonization  in  17th  century. 

b  Reasons  for  early  failures  in  Virginia,  1607-19. 

c  Reasons  for  greater  success,  1619-24,  under  leadership  of 
Sandys  and  Southampton,  and  the  party  opposed  to  abso- 
lutism. 

d  Labor  question:  early  troubles;  indented  white  servants 
and  negro  slaves. 

e  Development  of  representative  government  and  spirit  of 
independence,  after  annulling  of  charter,  1624.  (1)  Self- 
government  during  Puritan  supremacy  in  England.  (2) 
Bacon's  Rebellion,  causes,  changes  proposed,  results. 
(3)  Quarrels  between  assemblies  and  governors;  the  sub- 
jects, the  significance. 

/  Pictures  of  early  Virginia. 

g  Government  of  Virginia,  a  typical  royal  colony. 


2$2  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Map  work: 

a  Physical  features. 

b  Counties,  with  dates,  illustrating  westward  movement. 

Additional  topics: 

A  John  Smith  as  adventurer,  governor  and  historian. 

B  Education,  including  William  and  Mary  College.  Governor  Ber- 
keley's ideas. 

C  Political  and  economic  effects  of  the  cultivation  of  tobacco. 

D  "The  coming  of  the  Cavaliers." 

E  "Westward  growth  of  Old  Virginia,"  and  settlement  of  the  Shenan- 
doah valley. 

F  Virginia  life  in  18th  century. 

5  Maryland. 

a  Government  of  Maryland,  a  typical  proprietary  colony. 

b  Development  of  representative  government  in  Maryland. 

c  Religious  toleration  in  Maryland.  (1)  Provision  of  charter 
and  desire  of  Lord  Baltimore.  (2)  The  Toleration  Act  of 
1649.  (3)  What  is  said  about  religion  and  religious  freedom 
in  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  Consti- 
.  tution  of  your  own  state .  Compare  with  the  provisions  of 
the  "Toleration  Act"  of  1649. 

d  "Some  characteristics  of  Maryland." 

6  Carolinas  and  Georgia,  the  southern  frontier  colonies. 
a  Independent  spirit  in  the  Carolinas. 

b  Frontier  Life  of  North  Carolina. 

c  Life  in  South  Carolina. 

d  Georgia:   its  twofold  object;  its  services;  its  characteristics. 

Additional  topic: 
Puritans  in  the  Southern  colonies. 

Ill  New  England  (1620-1760). 

7  Beginnings  of  colonization  of  New  England.     Character  and 

aims  of  Puritans,  Pilgrims  and  Plymouth  colony. 
a  Origin  and  aims  of  English  Puritans  (before  1608);  special 
ideas  of  the  Separatists ;  treatment  of  the  Puritans  by  Eliza- 
beth and  James  1 ;  how  the  Separatists  around  Scrooby  be- 
came Pilgrims;  why  the  Pilgrims  left  Holland;  Mayflower 
Compact ;  landing  and  settling  at  Plymouth ;  early  govern- 
ment and  life. 

8  Early  Massachusetts. 

A  typical  New  England  colony,  1624-50.  Objects  (religious, 
political,  economic).     Character  of  government  and  life. 

a  Causes  and  character  of  the  Puritan  exodus  to  Massachusetts 
in  1630. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY  233 

b  Founding  of  Massachusetts:  charter,  how  obtained,  pro- 
visions; Cambridge  agreement,  transfer;  settlement  of  Bos- 
ton and  adjoining  towns. 

c  Rise  of  representative  government  in  Massachusetts,  1631-50. 

d  The  threefold  danger,  1634-36. 

e  Local  government  in  Massachusetts,  its  origin  and  form, 
town  meeting,  and  selectmen. 

/  Education,  morals  and  religion  in  Massachusetts  in    17th 
century. 
9  New  England,  1636-1760. 

Typical  development  of  American  institutions. 

EXPANSION  (BY  EXPULSION    AND    EMIGRATION).    WRITTEN    CONSTITUTIONS 

a  Founding  of  Providence  and  Rhode  Island,  1636-40. 

b  Founding  of  Connecticut. 

c  Founding  of  New  Haven:  aims  of  founders,  difference  be- 
tween their  government  and  that  of  Connecticut,  the  blue 
laws. 

d  The  northern  settlements,  later,  New  Hampshire  and  Maine: 
reasons  for  settlements;  character;  relations  to  Massachu- 
setts. 

FEDERATION 

e  The  New  England  Confederation,  1643:  articles,  administra- 
tion, services. 

RELATION  WITH  SUBJECT  RACES,  AND  WITH  QUAKERS  AND  WITCHES 

/  New  England  treatment  of  the  Indian  in  17th  century:  land, 

trade,  missionary  work,  Pequot  War. 
g  The  effect  of  the  Indian  as  neighbor  and  enemy  on  the  colonist. 
h  Treatment  of  Quakers  by  Massachusetts. 
i  Witchcraft  delusion. 

SELF-GOVERNMENT  AND  INDEPENDENT  SPIRIT 

j  Overthrow  of  the  Massachusetts  charter. 

k  The  tyranny  of  Andros  and  the  Revolution  of  1689. 

/  Independent  attitude  of  Massachusetts  toward  English  gov- 
ernment, 1630-1760. 

m  Provincial  New  England,  1692-17 60:  contests  with  royal 
governors;  paper  money;  commerce;  Harvard  and  Yale; 
the  "Great  Awakening";   literature. 

SELF-GOVERNMENT— DEMOCRATIC  SPIRIT-PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

n  Colonial  governments  of  New  England. 
o  Social  and  economic  conditions  in  New  England  in  1760  (in- 
cluding education). 


234  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Additional  topics: 
A  John  Winthrop :   his  character  and  his  statesmanship. 
B  The  Body  of  Liberties,  1641,  the  first  New  England  code  of  laws, 

compared  with  Magna  Charta.    - 
C  Why  was  Roger  Williams  banished  from  Massachusetts? 

Map  work: 

New  England  in  17th  century:  indicate  rivers,  chief  towns 
mentioned  in  reading,  boundaries  of  colonies,  location  of 
chief  Indian  tribes  (to  be  marked  1650  or  1700,  according 
to  map  followed). 

IV  Middle  colonies,  1609- 1760. 

10  New  York. 
a  Under  the  Dutch.  (1)  Political,  religious  and  industrial 
ideas  of  the  Dutch  in  Holland.  The  long  struggle  with  Spain. 
(2)  Holland  and  commercial  enterprise;  voyages  of  Hudson 
and  the  founding  of  trading  posts ;  the  fur  trade  and  friendship 
with  the  Indians.  (3)  The  West  India  Co.  and  the  pa- 
troons.  (4)  Growth  of  the  colony  and  the  demand  for  self- 
government.  (5)  The  struggle  for  self-government:  contest 
with  Governor  Kieft,  causes  and  results;  renewal  of  the 
popular  demand  under  Governor  Stuyvesant,  effects;  why 
the  people  did  not  oppose  capitulation  to  the  English.  (6) 
Conditions  in  New  Netherlands  in  1664:  population  and 
classes;  leading  occupations;  churches  and  religion;  schools 
and  education;  comparison  of  Dutch  and  English  colonies. 
b  Under  the  English.  (1)  Meaning  of  the  surrender  (1664). 
(2)  English  neglect  of  schools.  (3)  Slow  progress  toward' 
self-government:  Governor  Nichols  and  the  Dukes  Laws 
1665;  the  first  assembly ;  the  Charter  of  ^Liberties,  1683;  de- 
struction of  the  representative  assembly ;  the  Revolution  of 
1688  and  Leisler's  rule;  representative  government  reestab- 
lished under  William  and  Mary.  (4)  The  French  and  Indian 
Wars  1 688-1 7 63.  (5)  Social,  educational,  religious  and 
economic  conditions,  1700-60. 

Additional  topics: 
A   "Of  the  reasons  and  causes  why  and  how  New  Netherland  is  so 

decayed,"  1650. 
B  Peter  Stuyvesant. 

C  Old  Dutch  customs  in  New  Netherland. 
D  The  struggles  of  the  Dutch  and  the  English  for  a  representative 

assembly. 
E  Reasons  for  greater  success   of   England   than  of   Holland   as   a 

colonizing  nation. 


AMERICAN    HISTORY  235 

F  The  Iroquois  Confederacy. 

G  New  York  in  the  Intercolonial  Wars. 

H  Indian  trails  and  modern  routes  of  transportation. 

/  French,  German  and  Scotch  settlements  in  New  York. 

J  Strategic  points  in  colonial  New  York. 

K  The  Zenger  trial. 

L  The  importance  of  Albany  in  colonial  times. 

11  Pennsylvania,  "A  Quaker  experiment  in  government."  New 

Jersey  and  Delaware. 

a  Colonial  New  Jersey:  occupation  by  the  English;  the 
Quaker  purchase;  Penn's  purchase;  East  and  West  Jersey, 
1674;  New  Jersey  as  a  crown  colony,  1702;  character  of 
the  people. 

b  The  principles  of  the  ''Friends,"  or  Quakers:  political,  moral, 
religious. 

c  Life  and  character  of  William  Penn. 

d  The  founding  of  Pennsylvania. 

e  The  Quaker  Constitution. 

/  The  Quaker  government,  1682-1756.  (1)  Religious  and  civil 
liberty.  (2)  Relations  with  the  Indians.  (3)  Quaker  atti- 
tude toward  war.  (4)  Extent  to  which  Quakers  con- 
trolled the  government.      (5)  Slavery. 

g  Social  and  economic  conditions  in  Pennsylvania,   1760   (or 

1765). 
h  Relations  with  Delaware,  "The  Territories." 

Additional  topics: 
A  Quaker  organizations  and  discipline. 
B  The  virtues  and  limitations  of  Quakers  and  Puritans. 
C  A  comparison  between  the  Quaker  policy  toward   the   Indians   in 
Pennsylvania,  1682-1756,  and  the  Puritan  policy  in  New  England 
in  1630-76. 
D  The  Quakers'  attitude  toward  slavery 
E  The  measure  of  success  of  the  Quaker  experiment. 
F  Delaware;  settlement,  relations  with  Dutch  and  with  Pennsylvania. 

V  The  colonies  in  the  18th  century,  to  1760. 

12  Political,  social  and  economic  development  of  the  colonies, 

1700-50. 

a  Political  development.  (1)  Progress  in  self-government  taxa- 
tion; elections;  free  speech.  (2)  Defense  of  charters.  (3) 
Boundary  disputes:  with  France;  with  Spain;  between  in- 
dividual colonies.  (4)  Attempts  at  union:  specially  in  1690, 
and  Albany  Plan,  1754 ;  what  is  shown  by  their  failure. 

b  Economic  conditions  and  development. 


236  .  NEW   YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

c  Social  development:  population — immigration,  expansion, 
increase;  religion  (specially  "Great  Awakening");  edu- 
cation; literature;  newspapers. 

d  General  character  of  the  period. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Outline  of  the  political  and  economic  development  in  the  pupil's 
own  state,   1700-50.     Use,  if  available,  the  topics  and  subtopics 
above,  so  as  to  indicate  what  progress  was  made  in  these  lines 
in  the  state. 
B  Same  for  pupil's  own  town. 

13  Struggle  between  France  and  England  for  North  America, 
1689-1763. 

a  French  explorations  and  settlements  in  the  St  Lawrence  and 
Mississippi  valleys,  1604-17 18:  Port  Royal  in  Acadia,  1604; 
Champlain  at  Quebec,  1608;  La  Salle  and  the  Mississippi, 
1682;   settlement  of  Louisiana,  1699;   New  Orleans,  1718. 

b  Contrast  between  French  and  English  methods  of  coloniza- 
tion in  North  America:  political,  religious,  social,  economic. 

c  The  "Second  Hundred  Years  War  between  England  and 
France,"  1689-18 15:  its  world-wide  importance;  the  chief 
events  in  America  to  1748. 

d  Strength  and  weakness  of  the  French  and  of  the  English 
in  1754.  (1)  In  Europe:  military  resources;  attitude  of  each 
of  the  mother  countries  toward  its  colonies.  (2)  In  America: 
geographic  conditions;  population;  military  resources; 
political,  social,  economic  conditions. 

e  Expulsion  of  the  French,  1754-63,  the  "French  and  Indian 
War".  (1)  Theater  of  war;  lines  of  invasion.  (2)  Causes 
and  beginnings.  (3)  Early  failures  of  the  English,  1754-57. 
(4)  New  plans  and  leaders,  and  conquest  of  Canada,  1757-60: 
Pitt;  Wolfe;  Quebec.  (5)  Terms  of  peace;  geographic 
and  political  results  of  war  to  England,  France,  America, 
India. 

Map  work: 

a  Possessions    of    France,    England    and    Spain    in    North 
America   in    1756;   English   and    Spanish   possessions   in 
North  America  in  1763. 
b  Theater  of  war;   showing  river  valleys,  lines  of  invasions, 
forts,  battles. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Were  the  English  justified  in:  (1)  the  attempt  to  expel  the  Acadians 
(2)  the  method  used? 


AMERICAN   HISTORY  237 

B  Character  and  work  of  the  elder  Pitt. 
C  Battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham  and  capture  of  Quebec. 
D  Character  and  work  of  the  Jesuits  in  North  America  in  the  17th 
century. 

Review  or  examination  topic: 
"The  means,  the  character,  and  the  spirit  of  the  two  combatants  [in 
the  French  and  Indian  War],  and  why  one  succeeded  where  the  other 
was  defeated." 
14  Condition  of  the  colonies  in  1760  (or  1765),  political,  social, 
and  economic;  comparisons  between  the  three  sections. 

a  Economic  conditions.  (1)  In  the  Southern  colonies  (Vir- 
ginia, the  typical  colony) :  occupations;  means  of  communi- 
cation. (2)  Contrast  between  economic  conditions  in  the 
South  and  in  New  England.  (3)  Comparison  between  eco- 
nomic conditions  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  colonies. 

b  Social  conditions.  (1)  In  Southern  colonies:  classes;  slavery; 
plantation  life;  religion,  churches  and  church  services;  edu- 
cation ;  amusements  (Virginia,  typical  colony) .  (2)  Contrast 
between  social  conditions  in  Southern  and  New  England 
colonies.  (3)  Comparison  between  social  conditions  in 
Southern  and  Middle  colonies  (Pennsylvania  or- New  York 
as  typical  colony) .  (4)  Comparison  between  social  condi- 
tions in  New  England  and  Middle  colonies  (Pennsylvania 
or  New  York). 

c  Political  conditions.  (1)  Contrast  between  forms  of  local 
government  in  New  England  and  Virginia:  causes  and  re- 
sults. (2)  The  system  of  local  government  in  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania:  comparison  with  New  England  and  Virginia. 
(3)  The  three  forms  of  colonial  government.  (4)  General 
similarities  in  political  conditions  in  the  13  colonies. 
d  General  conditions.  (1)  Inherited  institutions  and  their  de- 
velopment. (2)  Elements  in  common  among  the  colonists: 
institutions,  character,  ideals.  (3)  Effects  of  diversity  and 
similarity  on  later  development.  (4)  Means  of  travel  and 
communication  between  the  colonies.  (5)  Population  of  the 
colonies  in  1760:  numbers;   character;   distribution. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Colonial  amusements. 
B  Slavery  in  the  colonies,  1619-1760. 

C  Colonial  taverns  and  turnpikes.     May  be  made  a  topic  for  investi- 
gation in  local  history. 
D  Religion:  including  toleration,  church  and  state,  and  clergymen. 
E  Education  and  literature 
F  Foreign  trade. 


238  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

VI  Union  and  independence,  1760-83. 

15  Causes  of  the  American  Revolution,  1760-83. 

a  Underlying  causes  of  the  Revolution :  fundamental  difference 
in  ideas  and  conditions  between  England  and  the  colonies 
in  1760.  (1)  In  social  conditions  (including  religion).  (2) 
In  economic  conditions.  (3)  In  political  ideas  and  conditions : 
two  kinds  of  "representation";  the  English  view  as  to  the 
government  of  the  colonies;  the  view  in  the  colonies — ex- 
amples in  the  Writs  of  Assistance  and  the  Parson's  Cause. 

b  The  immediate  causes  of  the  Revolution,  1763-74,  resulting 
from  these  fundamental  differences.  (1)  Grenville's  three 
new  schemes  of  colonial  control.  (2)  The  trade  laws  and 
attempts  at  enforcement.  (3)  The  Stamp  Act:  (a)  its 
purpose;  (b)  the  arguments  of  its  supporters;  (c)  the  ar- 
guments of  its  opponents.  (4)  The  Townshend  Acts  and 
resistance  to  them,  1767-69:  (a)  Massachusetts  Circular 
Letter,  1768;  (6)  Pennsylvania  Farmer's  Letters;  (c)  Vir- 
ginia Resolves  of  1769.  (5)  Boston  Massacre,  1770.  (6) 
Committees  of  Correspondence,  local  and  colonial,  1772 
and  1773.  (7)  Boston  Tea  Party,  1773.  (8)  The  five 
repressive  acts  of  1774,  the  "Intolerable  Acts."  (9)  Con- 
tinental Congress,  1774:  (a)  demand  for  it;  (b)  declaration 
and  resolves ;  (c)  American  Association  and  Nonimportation 
Agreement. 

c  A  summary  of  the  causes  of  the  American  Revolution :  brief 
but  in  chronologic  order,  and  with  definite  examples. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Popular  feeling  in  America  1765-75;  as  shown  in  handbills,  broad- 
sides, songs  and    illustrations. 
B  Modern  English  views  of  the  causes  of  the  Revolution. 
C  What  were  some  of  the  chief  constitutional  principles  involved  in 

the  disputes,  1760-74,  with  specific  illustrations  of  each? 
D  How  Samuel  Adams  stirred  up  the  spirit  of  revolution. 

16  The. Revolution ,  1775-83. 

Map  work: 

a  Sketch  map,  showing  three  fields  of  campaign  (New  Eng- 
land, Middle  States,  the  South),  with  dates  [see  topics,  6, 
c,  d]  for  each  of  three  regions,  and  for  10  or  12  most  import- 
ant battles. 

b  Boundaries  proposed  by  French  court,  1782. 

c  Territory  of  the  United  States  according  to  the  treaty  of 
1783,  showing  also  the  territory  of  Spain  and  England. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY  239 

a  Comparison  of  antagonists:  population;  resources;  leaders; 
theater  of  war;   strategy. 

b  The  campaign  in  New  England,  1775-76:  importance  of 
Lexington  and  Concord,  of  Bunker  Hill,  of  evacuation  of 
Boston. 

c  The  turning  of  the  tide  in  the  Middle  States,  1776-80. 
(1)  The  work  of  Washington.  (2)  Burgoyne's  campaign. 
(3)  French  alliance:    political  effects;   military  aid. 

d  Campaign  in  the  South,  1778-81. 

e  Growth  toward  independence,  1775-76.  (1)  The  king's  rejec- 
tion of  "Olive  Branch"  petition.  (2)  Formation  of  new 
state  governments.  (3)  Beginning  of  a  national  govern- 
ment, 1775.  (4)  Hiring  of  the  "foreign  mercenaries."  (5) 
Thomas  Paine's  Common  Sense. 

f  The  Declaration  of  Independence.  Read  it  through  carefully 
and  state.  (1)  Its  ideas  as  to  the  source  and  the  purpose  of 
democratic  government.  (2)  Some  of  the  definite  acts  re- 
ferred to  in  the  list  of  grievances. 

g  The  treaty  of  peace,  1783. 

h  Difficulties  of  the  Americans. 

i  Services  of  Washington  in  the  Revolution. 

j  Patriotism  and  lack  of  patriotism  during  the  Revolution 

k  Causes  of  success:  American,  English,  European  factors. 
(1)  Importance  of  the  aid  of  France.  (2)  "How  England 
was  hampered  and  weakened." 

/  The  widespread  results  of  the  Revolution  in  America  and 
Europe. 

m  Justification  of  the  Revolution. 

n  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  Revolution. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Franklin's  services  to  America  in  the  Revolution. 
B  The  Loyalists  and  their  treatment. 
C  The  Conway  Cabal. 
D  Arnold's  treason. 
E  Naval  warfare;   John  Paul  Jones. 
F  The  services  of  foreign  officers  in  the  American  army. 
G  Account  of  a  battle  in  which  a  pupil's  ancestor  took  part. 
H  John  Andre*  and  Nathan  Hale. 
/    Diplomacy  of  the  Revolution. 

J  The  Revolution  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  people. 
K  The  battle  of  Oriskany. 
L  The  Tories  in  New  York. 

M  The  Formation  of  the  government  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
N  The  Services  of  Peter  Schuyler, 


24O  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

VII  The  critical  period,  1783-89. 

17  Confederation  and  Constitution. 

PART  1.  CONFEDERATION 

a  Articles  of  Confederation:  history  of  formation;  leading 
features ;  defects ;  merits ;  attempts  to  amend. 

b  Weakness  of  the  government :  dealings  with  the  army ;  for- 
eign relations. 

c  Disorders  in  the  states :  boundary  disputes ;  trade  discrimina- 
tions;  paper  money  craze. 

d  Social,  economic  and  political  conditions  and  progress, 
1783-89. 

e  The  Northwest  Territory:  claims  of  the  states;  cessions 
(influence  of  Maryland);  organization  of  the  territory; 
rights  guaranteed  to  people. 

Map  work: 

The  claims  of  the  states  to  western  lands. 

PART  2,  CONSTITUTION 

/  The  federal  convention:  steps  leading  to  convention;  the 
great  compromises;  find  in  the  Constitution  the  clauses 
which  constitute  the  great  compromises. 

g  Ratification  of  the  Constitution. 

h  Preliminary  study  of  the  federal  Constitution:  (1)  Con- 
gress: numbers,  terms,  qualifications  and  mode  of  election 
of  members  of  each  branch;  mode  of  making  laws  (three 
possible  ways) ;  powers  of  Congress ;  special  powers  of  each 
house  (what  special  or  exclusive  powers  does  the  Senate 
have  as  compared  with  the  House) ;  find  in  the  Constitu- 
tion all  the  acts  which  require  more  than  a  simple  majority 
vote.  (2)  The  president:  qualifications,  term,  manner  of  elec- 
tion (comparison  of  old  and  present  methods) ;  powers  (note 
relations  with  Congress,  and  appointing  power).  (3)  The 
judiciary:  kinds  of  courts;  tenure  of  judges;  jurisdiction  of 
courts  (general  features  only).  (4)  Division  of  powers  be- 
tween state  and  national  government. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Describe  the  two  forms  of  territorial  government  laid  down  in  the 

Ordinance  of  1787. 
B  Find  four  or  five  rights  guaranteed  to  the  people  of  the  Northwest 

Territory,  and  note  their  appearance  in  the  Constitution. 
C  Compare  the  Constitution  with  the  Articles  of  Confederation  with 

reference  to:    (1)  representation;    (2)  methods  of  raising  money: 

(3)  voting  in  Congress;   (4)  amendments. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY  24I 

D  Contemporary  accounts  of  the  defects  of  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation.   Show  how  each  defect  was  remedied  by  the  Constitution . 

E  Contemporary  arguments  against  ratification  of  the  Constitution. 

F  The  contest  over  ratification  in  Massachusetts;  in  New  York; 
in  Virginia. 

VIII  The  Federalist  supremacy,  1 789-1801. 

18  Organization  of  the  national  government. 

a  Inauguration ;  executive  departments ;  inferior  courts ;  first 

10  amendments. 
b  Financial  system,  and  formation  of  the  Republican  party. 

(1)   Tariff.     (2)    Debts.     (3)    Excise.     (4)    National  bank. 

(5)  Formation  of  parties. 

Additional  topics: 

A  "Our  republican  court":   titles,  ceremonials,  levees. 

B  The  first  slavery  debates;  import  tax;  petitions;  fugitive  slave 
law,  1793. 

C  Political  writings:  newspapers,  pamphlets,  foreign  editors. 

D  Find  in  the  Constitution  three  limitations  on  the  power  of  Con- 
gress to  tax. 

E  Resemblances  between  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  and 
the  Constitution  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

F  The  services  of  Alexander  Hamilton. 

19  Foreign  relations,  1 793-1800. 

,    a  Outbreak  of  war  between  England  and  France. 

b  Relations  with  France:  Genet;  X,  Y,  Z  affair;  war  of  1798; 
treaty  of  1800. 

c  Relations  with  England:  Jay's  treaty;  constitutional  ques- 
tions involved. 

d  Relations  with  Spain:  Mississippi  question  and  the  treaty 
of  1795. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Attacks  on  Washington. 
B  Washington's  farewell  address. 

C  Treaties :  how  made  ?  May  the  House  refuse  to  vote  money  neces- 
sary to  carry  out  a  treaty  ?  Can  a  treaty  alter  a  law  of  the  United 
States?     Can  a  law  supersede  a  treaty? 

20  Fall  of  the  Federalists,  1 798-1801. 

a  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts ;  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolutions. 
b  Party  organization  and  conflicts,  and  the  election  of  1 800-1. 

IX  The  Jeffersonian  Republicans,  1801-1817. 

21  General  principles  and  domestic  policy  of  Jefferson's  adminis- 

tration. 


242  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

a  Inaugural  address. 
b  The  civil  service  under  Jefferson. 
c  The  attack  on  the  judiciary. 

d  Financial  policy:  reduction  of  debt;  retrenchment  in  army 
and  navy. 

22  Expansion. 

a  Louisiana  Purchase;    territorial  and  constitutional  impor- 
tance. 
b  Oregon;  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition,  1803-6. 

Map  work: 

The  United  States  at  the  close  of  Jefferson's  first  term. 

Additional  topics: 

A  The  Federalists'  secession  projects. 

B  Why  did  Hamilton  accept  Burr's  challenge? 

C  Burr's  conspiracy. 

D  War  with  the  Barbary  pirates. 

23  Struggle  for  neutral  rights. 

a  Aggressions  by  England  and  France  on  neutral  trade:  Berlin 
and  Milan  decrees ;  Orders  in  Council ;  impressments. 

b  Retaliatory  measures :  nonimportation ;  embargo ;  noninter- 
course  act;  Macon's  bill  no.  2. 

c  The  War  of  181 2:  causes,  French,  English  and  American; 
comparison  of  strength ;  military  and  naval  warfare ;  oppo- 
sition to  the  war  (Hartford  convention) ;  treaty  of  peace. 

Additional  topics: 

A  Group  all  the  clauses  of  the  Constitution  which  relate  to  war. 
B  The  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
C  New  York  State  in  the  War  of  181 2. 
D  Battle  of  Plattsburg. 

X  Reorganization,  1817-29. 

24  Economic  reorganization. 

a  The  tariff:  effects  of  the  events  of  1808-15  on  commerce, 
agriculture  and  manufacturing;  protectionist  arguments; 
attitude  of  the  political  leaders,  Clay,  Calhoun,  Webster 
and  Randolph;  tariff  acts  of  1816,  1824,  1828. 

b  Banking:  evils  of  state  banks;  the  second  United  States 
Bank,  1816. 

25  Westward  migration  and  internal  improvements. 

a  Westward  migration:  influence  of  conditions  on  the  sea- 
board ;  methods  and  routes  of  travel ;  conditions  of  western 
life,  1800-30. 


AMERICAN    HISTORY  243 

b  Internal  improvements:    need  of  better  communication  be- 
tween East  and  West;  political  and  economic  results  of  the 
Erie  canal  and  the  railroads;  the  constitutional  question  in- 
volved. 
c  The  Indians  in  Georgia  and  the  question  of  state  sovereignty. 

Additional  topic: 
Give  an  account  of  some  local  industry  that  was  established  in  the 
first  quarter  of  the  19th  century. 

26  Slavery  and  the  Missouri  Compromises. 

a  Slavery  extension,  1 783-1818:  constitutional  recognition  of 
slavery;  Fugitive  Slave  Act,  1793;  economic  and  political 
effects  of  the  cotton  gin;  balancing  of  states;  extent  of 
slavery,  18 18  (map). 

b  The  struggle  for  Missouri:  significance  of  the  contest;  first 
compromise  (Tallmadge,  Thomas) ;  second  compromise 
(Clay) ;  constitutional  questions  involved ;  cite  the  sections 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  relating  to  these 
questions. 

Map  work: 

Status  of  slavery,  182 1.    Shade  the  portions  of  the  country 
affected  by  the  compromise. 

27  The  Monroe  Doctrine  and  the  Panama  congress. 
a  Conditions  leading  to  the  Monroe  doctrine. 

b  Earlier  statements  of  the  principles  of  the  doctrine. 
c  Contemporary  comment  on  the  doctrine. 
d  Later  developments  of  the  doctrine. 
e  The  Panama  congress. 

28  Political  reorganization  and  the  triumph  of  Jackson. 

a  Growth  of  nationalism  as  shown  by  Supreme  Court  decisions. 

b  The  "scrub  race  for  the  presidency,"  1824-25. 

c   New  political  methods,  and  the  election  of  1828. 

d  Personal  features  of  Jackson's  administration:  Jackson's 
character;  the  Kitchen  Cabinet;  the  spoils  system  intro- 
duced into  national  politics. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Indian  troubles,  1824-28,  1830-32. 
B  Jackson  as  a  type  of  American  frontier  life  in  1829. 
C  Internal  improvements. 
D  Public  lands. 

XI  National  Democracy,  1829-44. 

29  Nullification  in  South  Carolina;    the  question  of  state  sov- 

ereignty. 


244  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

a  The  "great  debate":  nullification  in  theory. 

b  The  contest  with  South  Carolina:  nullification  in  "practice. 

c  Compare  the  action  of  South  Carolina  in  1832-33  with  that  of 
(1)  Virginia  and  Kentucky  in  1798-99;  (2)  Massachusetts  in 
1813-15;  (3)  Georgia  in  1825-27.  [see  sections  20,  a;  23,  c 
(Hartford  convention,  etc.);  and  25,  c,  or  28,  Additional. 
Topic  A]. 

30  Financial  questions,  1830-42. 

a  Jackson's  war  on  the  bank:  objection  to  the  bank;  election 
of  1832 ;  removal  of  deposits;  censure  and  protest. 

b  Financial  depression,  1837-40:  "pet  banks";  distribution 
of  surplus  revenue;  specie  circular;  panic  of  1837;  inde- 
pendent treasury,  1840  (1846). 

c  Whig  financial  measures;  Tyler's  bank  vetoes;  tariff  of 
1842. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Nominating  conventions. 

B  "Why  great  men  are  not  chosen  presidents." 
C  Ashburton  treaty,  1842. 

31  Antislavery  agitation,  1831-38. 
a  Actual  conditions  of  slavery. 

b  Revival  of  the  slavery  question:  a  period  of  general  moral 
and  religious  revival ;  new  character  of  the  agitation ;  leaders. 

c  Northern  opposition  to  the  abolitionists:  public  meetings 
and  protests ;  riots ;  social  ostracism. 

d  Constitutional  questions  involved:  right  of  petition;  free 
speech;  use  of  the  mails. 

XII  Slavery  in  the  territories,  1844-60. 

3  2  Annexation  of  Texas  and  the  Mexican  War. 
a  Independence  of  Texas. 
b  Annexation  of  Texas :  Tyler's  attempt ;  the  election  of  1844; 

how  annexation  was  accomplished. 
c  War  with  Mexico :   immediate  origin ;   campaigns  of  Taylor, 

Scott,  Fremont  and  Kearny;    Wilmot  Proviso;    treaty  of 

peace. 
33  Struggle  over  slavery  in  the  territories. 

a  Compromise    of     1850:     slavery   in    the    Mexican    cession. 

(1)  Settlement  of  California.     (3)  Discussion  of  compromise 

measures.      (3)  Workings  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law:    the 

Shadrach  case;  the  underground  railroad;  Sumner's  speech 

in  favor  of  the  repeal  of  the  law. 


AMERICAN   HISTORY  245 

b  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Act  and  the  struggle  for  Kansas: 
Douglas's  real  object;  Topeka  and  Lecompton  constitu- 
tions ;  civil  war  in  Kansas ;  English  bill. 

c  Dred  Scott  Decision,  1857 :  slavery  throughout  the  territories 

d  Lincoln-Douglas  debates,  1858:  the  issues  denned. 

e  John  Brown's  raid,  1859. 

/  The  election  of  i860:  split  in  the  Democratic  party;  the 
Republican  convention ;  the  campaign. 

Map  work: 

a  Show  by  a  series  of  maps  the  status  of  slavery  in  185 1, 

1855,  i860. 
b  Show  by  a  series  of  charts  the  sectionalization  of  political 
parties  in  the  elections  of  1852,  1856,  i860. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Webster's  services  to  the  idea  of  national  union. 
B  Clay's  character  and  services. 
C  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin. 
D  Cuba  and  the  Ostend  Manifesto 
E  The  Isthmian  canal  question. 
F  The  Know-nothing  party. 
G  The  panic  of  1857. 

XIII  Secession  and  Civil  War,  i860- 1865. 

34  Secession  of  the  Southern  States. 

a  Underlying  causes ;  process  of  secession ;  Constitution  of  the 

Southern  Confederacy. 
b  Attempts  at  compromise. 
c  Abraham  Lincoln  and  his  policy. 

Map  work: 

Seceding  states.    Indicate,  also,  the  loyal,  but  slave-holding, 
states. 

Additional  topic: 
Summary  of  state  sovereignty  ideas,  1 783-1861. 

35  The  Civil  War,  1861-65. 

a  Fort  Sumter,  and  the  uprising  of  the  North. 

b  The  sections  in  186 1  compared:  population;  economic  re- 
sources; military  spirit. 

c  General  plan  of  campaign  and  chief  military  events.  186 1 
Bull  Run,  and  the  organization  of  the  eastern  army  by 
McClellan.  1862  East:  Peninsular  campaign,  Antietam, 
Fredericksburg;  West:  Opening  of  the  Mississippi — Forts 
Henry  and   Donelson,  Shiloh,  New   Orleans;    eastern  Ten- 


246  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

nessee:  to  isolate  the  Gulf  States.  1863  East:  Chancellors- 
ville,  Gettysburg;  West:  Vicksburg;  eastern  Tennessee: 
Chickamauga,  Chattanooga.  1864  East:  Grant's  move  on 
Richmond,  Sheridan  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley;  West:  Sher- 
man's march  from  Chattanooga  to  Atlanta;  "from  Atlanta 
to  the  Sea";  Thomas's  campaign  and  its  importance.  1865 
Closing  in  on  Lee;  Appomattox.  1861-65  The  work  of  the 
navy. 

d  Financial  management  of  the  war:  tariff;  internal  taxation ; 
paper  money ;  national  banking  system. 

e  Attitude  of  Europe  toward  the  war. 

/  Conditions  incidental  to  war;  enlistments;  bounties;  prison 
life ;  camps ;  railroad  and  telegraph ;  sanitary  and  Christian 
commissions ;  work  of  the  pupil's  own  town  or  city. 

g  Northern  opposition  to  the  war. 

h  Emancipation. 

Additional  topics; 

A  Grant's  military  ability. 

B  Lee  as  a  general. 

C  Draft  riot  in  New  York  city. 

XIV  Problems  of  peace,  1865- 1904. 

36  Reconstruction,  the  new  south,  and  the  race  problems. 

a  Principles  of  reconstruction:  policy  of  Lincoln  and  of  John- 
son; congressional  policy;  the  Reconstruction  Act  of  1867; 
constitutional  amendments. 

b  Process  of  reconstruction:  conditions  in  the  South  at  the 
close  of  the  war ;  southern  opposition  to  the  f reedmen ;  f reed- 
men's  bureau;  carpetbag  government;  struggle  between 
Congress  and  President  Johnson. 

c  The  new  South  and  the  race  problem:  economic  develop- 
ment; social  and  industrial  progress  of  the  negro;  revision 
of  constitutions  of  Southern  States. 

37  Political  problems  since  1865. 

a  Party  contests:  Liberal  Republicans,  1872;  Hayes-Tilden 
contest,  1876-77;  Democratic  triumph,  1884;  split  in  Demo- 
cratic party,  1896;  party  issue. 

b  Civil  service  reform. 

c  Foreign  relations,  1 865-1 904:  purchase  of  Alaska ;  treaty  of 
187 1  with  Great  Britain,  and  the  Geneva  award;  Venezuelan 
affair,  1895;  annexation  of  Hawaii;  war  with  Spain;  Philip- 


AMERICAN    HISTORY  247 

pine  problem;    independence  of  Cuba;    American  policy  in 
China;   Isthmian  canal. 
d  Problems  of  municipal  government. 

38  Economic  problems  since  1865. 

a  The  tariff:  attempts  to  reduce  the  war  tariff;  Cleveland's 
tariff  message,  1887;  the  McKinley  Act,  1890;  the  Wilson 
Act,  1894;  the  Dingley  Act,  1897  ;  movement  for  reciprocity 
and  tariff  reform. 

b  Currency :  resumption  of  specie  payments ;  the  silver  coinage 
struggle. 

c  Combinations  of  labor  and  of  capital :  labor  unions ;  trusts ; 
strikes  and  lockouts;  growth  of  railroads;  regulation  of  in- 
terstate commerce;  the  Northern  Securities  case. 

39  Summary  and  review  of  American  history. 

a  Chief  factors  in  the  progress  from  colonies  to  nation,  from 

1607  a.d.  to  the  present. 
b  The   United   States   at   the   present   day:     population;    re- 
sources; conditions,  social,  political,  economic. 
c  "  Some  reasons  why  the  American  republic  may  endure." 

Additional  topics: 
A  Summary  of  the  principal  changes  made  in  the  Constitution  of  the 

State  of  New  York  by  the  revisions  of  182 1,  1846  and  1894. 
B  Dangers  that  threaten  free  government  in  America. 


GROUP   4    (concluded) 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE 
Civil  government        Economics 

CIVIL   GOVERNMENT 

Introduction 

That  the  public  school  exists  for  good  citizenship  is  axiomatic. 
It  follows  then  that  definite  instruction  in  regard  to  civic  rights 
and  duties  and  the  general  functions  of  government  should  occupy 
no  inconsiderable  place  in  the  school  curriculum. 

Unfortunately  the  teaching  of  civil  government  hitherto  has  not 
produced  satisfactory  results.  Too  often  it  has  yielded  words 
without  ideas,  phrases  without  meaning.  Even  if  the  ideas  gained 
by  the  pupil  have  been  clear,  they  have  been  neither  vivid  nor 
closely  related — mere  memory  burdens  to  be  carried  to  the  exam- 
ination and  then  dumped. 

In  truth,  the  subject  is  difficult  of  approach.  Two  avenues  are 
open  to  the  pupil,  experience  and  historical  knowledge;  but  most 
high  school  pupils,  even,  have  had  small  experience  of  government 
beyond  the  home  and  the  school  and  very  many  have  had  little  his- 
torical instruction.  Experience  is  the  only  possible  road  for  the 
grade  pupil;  but  both  approaches  should  be  traversed  by  the 
advanced  pupils  of  the  high  school. 

If,  then,  civics  in  the  high  school  is  to  be  anything  more  than  a 
review  of  civics  in  the  grades,  if  it  is  to  fill  any  worthy  and  respect- 
able place  in  the  curriculum,  it  must  rest  on  some  foundation  of 
historical  knowledge  and  specially  on  some  knowledge  of  that  peo- 
ple from  whom  nearly  all  our  best  institutions  of  government  were 
derived. 

In  regard  to  the  extensive  syllabus  here  presented,  the  following 
explanations  are  offered. 

Civil  government  is  not  recommended,  and  will  not  be  accepted, 
as  a  substitute  for  the  course  of  American  history,  which  has  been 
planned  to  include  continuous  instruction  in  civics.  American 
history  will  receive  the  credits  of  a  five  hour  course  while  civil 
government  is  offered  as  a  two  hour  course.  Students  who  pur- 
sue the  course  of  American  history  as  outlined  in  the  history  syl- 

248 


CIVIL    GOVERNMENT 


249 


labus  will  receive  "credit  for  civil  government  on  all  certificates 
which  call  for  civics. 

This  outline  has  been  prepared  for  those  who  specially  need  the 
subject  of  civics  for  professional  certificates  or  for  civil  service 
examinations  and  for  those  who  can  not  find  time  for  the  full  course 
of  American  history. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  outline  will  prove  of  some  value  to  teachers 
of  American  history  who  wish  specially  to  emphasize  civil  govern- 
ment in  their  teaching  and  to  any  who,  may  find  the  bibliographic 
references  adapted  to  their  library  facilities. 

The  bibliographic  references  have  been  made  from  a  compara- 
tively small  number  of  books  most  of  which  either  are,  or  should 
be,  in  every  high  school  library.  For  obvious  reasons  all  references 
to  books  commonly  used  as  textbooks  of  civil  government  in  this 
State  have  been  excluded;  but  teachers  may  greatly  add  to  the 
value  of  this  outline  by  making  for  their  own  classes  appropriate 
references  to  five  or  six  standard  textbooks. 

It  is  not  expected  that  each  pupil  will  search  each  reference  con- 
tained in  the  syllabus;  though  teachers  should  become  familiar 
with  all  the  references,  that  they  may  assist  pupils  to  make  wise 
selections  of  material,  properly  organize  notebook  work  and  know 
the  subject-matter  on  which  examinations  may  be  based. 

It  is  earnestly  desired  that  this  syllabus  may  lead  to  an  in- 
creased use  of  the  notebook  and  the  library — of  the  notebook  as 
an  aid  to  self-expression  and  self -activity,  of  the  library  as  a  door- 
way to  intellectual  fellowship. 


3 
*\3 

1- 

General  survey  of  the  field 

"0 

a* 

5 

I 
Government. 

1  The  necessity  for  government. 

2  The  purpose  of  government. 

[   3  Departments  of  government. 

1 
2 

2 

5 

II 

Early  forms  of 
government. 

1  Patriarchal.  ) 

2  Clan.               J 

3  Tribe.  ) 

4  State.  ) 

5  Federation. 

1 

2 
2 

8 

Ill 

Colony  planting      - 
in  America. 

'    1  Conditions  in  England  that  favored  colony 

planting. 
-  2  English  origins  of  American  government. 

3  Typical  American  colonies. 

4  Local  governments ;  town  and  county. 

2 

2 

i 

250 


NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 


*->    CO 

Vg 

t;  x 

?• 

CD   M 


13 


M 


*4 


General  survey  of  the  field  {continued) 


IV 
Government  in 
the  colonies 
prior  to  the 
Revolution. 


Steps  toward 
colonial  union. 


VI 

The  Revolution 
and  Articles  of 
Confederation. 

VII 

The  Old  North- 
west Territory. 


VIII 
The  Constitution. 


IX 

Politicaljparties. 


X 
Present  govern- 
ment as 

developed  under 
the  Constitution. 


XI 
Foreign 
relations. 

XII 
The  Govern- 
ment of  New 
York  State. 


1  Nature  of  the  first  charters. 

2  The  necessity  for  self-government. 

3  The  need  for  control  by  the  home  govern- 

ment. 


1  The  New  England  Confederation 

2  The  first  colonial  congress. 

3  The  Albany  Congress. 


-|    4  The  Stamp  Act  Congress. 

5  The  first  Continental  Congress. 

6  Strife  of  colonial  legislatures  with   royal 
and  proprietary  governors. 

1  Causes  of  the  Revolution. 

2  The  second  Continental  Congress. 

3  Formation  of  state  governments. 

4  The  Articles  of  Confederation. 


{• 


The  land. 

A  national  territory. 

The  federal  convention. 
Adoption  of  the  Constitution. 
Departments  of  government  established. 
Miscellaneous  provisions  of  the  Constitu- 
tion. 
Overlapping  powers. 
Amendments.  / 

The  elastic  clause.  ) 

General  principles  on  which  parties  divided 

The  Federalists. 

Jeffersonian  Republicans. 

Reorganization  of  parties. 

Democrats  and  Whigs. 

Republicans  and  Democrats. 

Party  machinery. 

The  suffrage  and  its  extension 

Congress  at  work. 

The  executive  department. 

Federal  courts. 

The  civil  service. 

Taxation. 

Territories. 


1  International  law. 

2  Diplomatic  agents. 

3  The  Monroe  Doctrine. 

1  The  first  Constitution. 

2  Revisions  of  the  Constitution. 

3  Present  government  of  New  York. 


CIVIL    GOVERNMENT 


251 


Cities  the  first  states. 

Roman  municipia. 

Cities  the  centers  of  medieval  progress. 

Drift  of  population  toward  cities. 

American  city  charters. 

City  government. 


Outlines  of  civil  government 
Government. 

1  The  necessity  for  government. 

a  The  family,  the  school,  the  playground. 

Reference:    Dole,  American  Citizen,  3-13. 
b  The  school  district,  the  town,  the  village  or  city,  the  county- 
References:   Nordhoff,  Politics  for  Young  Americans,  45  and 
126;    Dole,  American  Citizen,  51-54. 
c  The  state  and  the  nation. 
References:    Dole,  American  Citizen,  55-57;    Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  art.  I,  §  8-10. 

2  The  purpose  of  government. 

References:    Hinsdale,  The  American  Government,   10  and  11; 
Nordhoff,  Politics  for  Young  Americans,  17-24. 

Additional  topics: 

A  An  analysis  of  a  copy  of  the  school  rules,-  of  the  rules  of  a  debat- 
ing or  literary  society,  of  the  rules  of  baseball,  to  show  duties  and 
prohibitions  or  to  show  the  purpose  of  the  rules,  i.e.  instruction 
or  punishment  of  offenses. 

B  The  reading  of  a  copy  of  the  proceedings!   of  the  last  town  meeting. 

C  A  partial  analysis  of  the  annual  report  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
board  of  supervisors,  showing  the  different  classes  of  resolutions: 

(1)  providing  for  taxation,  (2)  auditing  bills,  (3)  caring  for  county 
property,  (4)  relating  to  care  of  criminals  and  paupers. 

D  A  partial  analysis  of  the  city  or  village  ordinances,  showing  the 
principal  subjects  of  legislation,  such  as  (1)  streets  and  sidewalks, 

(2)  waterworks,     (3)   public    health,    (4)   fire,    (5)   general    misde- 
meanors. 

E  A  selection,  from  the  index  of  a  recent  copy  of  the  laws  of  New 
York  (session  laws),  of  several  of  the  most  important  subjects  of 
legislation. 

F  A  selection  from  a  recent  copy  of  the  Congressional  Record  of  some 
of  the  most  important  subjects  of  national  legislation. 

!If  not  published,  apply  to  town  clerk. 


252  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

3  Departments  of  government. 

Division  of  the  functions  of  government  into  legislative,  execu- 
tive, judicial. 
References:   Constitution  of  the  United    States,  art.  I,  II  and 
III;  Nordhoff,  Politics  for  Young  Americans,  28,  29. 

Additional  topic: 
A  chart  showing  how  government  is  divided  into  legislative,  executive 
and  judicial  departments  in  the  state,  the  county,  the  town,  the 
village  or  city. 

II  Early  forms  of  government. 

Reference:  Hinsdale,  American  Government,  14,  15. 

1  Patriarchal. 

References:  Genesis,  ch.  13,  14;  Myers,  Ancient  History,  355, 
356;  Morey,  Outlines  of  Roman  History,  28,  29;  Bury, 
History  of  Greece,  69,  70;  West,  Ancient  History,  260-66; 
How  &  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  40. 

2  Clan. 

References:  Genesis,  ch.  37,  46;  How  &  Leigh,  History  of 
Rome,  41 ;  Larned,  History  for  Ready  Reference,  see  "  Gens  "; 
International  Cyclopedia,  see  "  Clan." 

3  Tribe. 

References:    Anderson-Flick,  History  of  New  York  State,   6; 
Pelham,   Outlines  of  Roman  History,    22;    How  &   Leigh 
History  of  Rome,  44,  45;  Bury,  History  of  Greece,  69-75. 
Possible  confusion,  may  arise  from  different  uses  of  the  words  "clan" 
and  "tribe"  by  different  authors.     Mistakes  maybe  avoided  by  remem- 
bering   that  strictly   speaking   the  clan  is   the  enlarged  family,   bound 
together  by  blood    ties   and   that   the   tribe  is  a  larger  unit    made    up 
of  clans.     Midway  between  the  Greek   clan,  genos,  and  the  Greek   tribe, 
phyle,  was  the  phratry  or  brotherhood  and  between  the  Roman  clan,  gens, 
and   the   Roman  tribe  was  the  curia.     Similarly  in  England  we  find  the 
"hundred,"  apolitical  division  intermediate  between  the  town  and  the 
shire. 

4  The  state. 

a  The  Greek  and  Roman  city-state. 

References:    Morey,  Outlines  of  Roman  History,  30;    Myers, 
Ancient  History,  r?v.  ed.,  127,  128,  358;    West,  Ancient 
History,  91-94. 
b  Fusion  of  the  tribes  or  smaller  kingdoms  in  England. 

References:  Green,  Short  History  of  England,  44;  Coman 
&  Kendall,  History  of  England,  37;  Cheney,  Short  History 
of  England,  56. 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT  253 

The  federation. 

a  The  Confederacy  of  Delos. 

References:    Bury,  History  of  Greece,   328;    West,  Ancient 
History,  159-60;  Myers,  Ancient  History,  202. 
b  Rome  and  Italy. 

References:    Pelham,   Outlines  of  Roman   History,    97-104; 
How  &  Leigh,  History  of  Rome,  133-35;    Morey,  Outlines 
of  Roman  History,  93,  94;  Myers,  Ancient  History,  401-3. 
c  The  States  General  (Holland). 

References:  West,  Modern  History,  177,  242-44;  Myers,  Mod- 
ern History,  368-75. 
d  Switzerland. 

References:    Myers,   Middle  Ages,   418-20;    West,   Modern 
I        History,  174. 
e  Iroquois  confederacy. 

References:  see  ,:  Iroquois,"  Larned,  History  for  Ready  Refer- 
ence-, Parkman,  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,  ch.  1;  Elson, 
History  of  the  United  States,  38,  note. 

Ill  Colony  planting  in  America. 

1  Conditions  in  England  that  favored  colonial  enterprise. 

a  England  and  Spain;  Gilbert,  Raleigh,  Drake,  Hawkins. 
References:    Thwaites,  Colonies,  37,  42,  43,   52;    Gardiner, 
.  Students1  History  of  England,  447;    Eggleston,  Beginners 

of  a  Nation,  14-18;    Green,  Short  History  of  the  English 
People,  413-20. 
b  Economic  conditions  in  England. 
i  References:  Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,  46-49;  Thwaites,  Colonies, 

53.  65;  Cheney,  Short  History  of  England,  367,  368. 
c  Religious  and  political  differences. 

References:  Thwaites,  Colonies,  114,  115;  Fiske,  Beginnings 
of  New  England,  65,  66,  68-71;  Gardiner,  Students1  His- 
tory of  England,  481,  482;  Eggleston,  Beginners,  118,  119. 

2  The  English  origins  of  American  government. 

a  The  town,  the  parish,  the  shire  or  county,  the  hundred,  the 
moots. 
References:  Green,  Short  History  of  the  English  People,  3,4; 
Gardiner,  Students*  History  of  England,  31,  ^^;  Cheney, 
Short  History  of  England,  79,  80;  Andrews,  History  of 
England,  43-45;  Fiske,  Beginnings,  27,  28;  Thwaites, 
Colonies,  55. 


254  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

b  Representative  government. 

References:   Fiske,  Beginnings,    20-23,  31-33;    Hart,   Actual 
Government,  39-43. 
c  Personal  rights. 

References:    Hart,  Actual  Government,   21-23;    see,   English 
histories,  Magna  Charta,  Petition  of  Right,  Habeas  Cor- 
pus Act,  Bill  of  Rights;   Macdonald,  Select  Charters,  First 
Charter  of  Virginia,  §15. 
3  Typical  American  colonies. 

a  Virginia:   Jamestown  and  other  settlements ;    Sandys 's  Con- 
stitution. 
References:  Thwaites.  Colonies,  69-73;   Elson,  United  States, 
60-67;  Eggleston,  Beginners,  27-31;  Hart,  Contemporaries, 
I,  206-18. 
References:  Thwaites,  Colonies,  73,  74;  Elson,  United  States. 
67-69;  Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  184-88;  Eggleston,  Beginners, 
t  53-58;  Hart,  Contemporaries,  I,  218-25. 

Additional  topic: 
Locate  on  a  map  of  tide  water  Virginia  some  of  the  boroughs  repre- 
sented in  the  first  House  of  Burgesses  (16 19). 
References:  Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,  186  and  frontispiece  map. 
b  Massachusetts:    Plymouth  and  Mayflower  compact;   Massa- 
chusetts Bay;  representative  government. 
References:  Thwaites,  Colonies,  113-24;  Elson,  United  States, 
99-103;    Higginson,  Larger  History,    153-58;    Hart,  Con- 
temporaries. I,  344. 
References:  Thw 'aites,  Colonies,  124-29;  Elson,  United  States, 
105-8;  Fiske,  Beginnings,    98-106;  Hart,  Contemporaries, 
I,  373-82. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Massachusetts  and  other  New  England  colonies,   Connecticut, 
Rhode  Island,  New  Hampshire,  Maine. 
References:    Thwaites,    Colonies,    140-53;    Elson,    United  States, 
111-19. 
B  Map  of  Eastern  Massachusetts  showing  12  towns  settled  prior  to 
1640. 
References:  Large  map  of  eastern  Massachusetts  and  a  standard 
encyclopedia. 
c  New  York;    purpose  of  the  settlements;    demands  for  self- 
government  under  Kieft  and  Stuyvesant;   transfer  to  the 
English;    first  representative   assembly,   town   meetings, 
charter  of  liberties;  division  of  New  York  into  10  counties. 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT  255 

References:  Thwaites,  Colonies,  198;  200,  201;  203-5;  Elson, 
United  States,  135,  136;  140-42;  see  also  Roberts,  Pren- 
tice, and  Anderson-Flick,  histories  of  New  York. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Map  of  New  York  State,  showing  principal  settlements  made  in 
the  Hudson  and  Mohawk  valleys  prior  to  1700. 
Reference:  A  standard  encyclopedia;  see  names  of  principal  towns. 
B  The  process  of  state  formation  compared  with  biologic  cell  growth 

Reference:  Overton,  Applied  Physiology,  12,  13. 
C  Communism  in  the  Jamestown  and  in  the  Plymouth  settlements. 
References:  Thwaites,  Colonies,  72,  73,  117,  120,  121;  Elson,  United 
States,  65,  102,  103;    Eggleston,  Beginners,  48,  49,  56,  180,  186, 
187;  Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,  166,  167. 
4  Local  governments;    town  and  county. 

References:  Thwaites,  Colonies,  55-58;  Elson,  United  States, 
214-15;  Bryce,  American  Commonwealth,  I,  589-93;  Hart, 
Actual  Government,  169-76. 

Additional  topics: 
A  How  local  government  was  modified  by  geographic  and  industrial 

conditions  in  Virginia  and  Massachusetts. 
B  The  parish  in  New  England  and  the  parish  in  Virginia. 

References:  Eggleston,  Beginners,  275-325;  Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  II, 

3J-44. 

C  Beginnings  of  representative  colonial  government  in  Massachusetts, 
Virginia  and  New  York  compared. 
References:  Fiske,  Beginnings,   105-6;   Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,   186, 
187;    Thwaites,   Colonies,    127,    128,    205;  Roberts,   New    York, 
188-90,  192. 

D  Beginnings  of  representative  government:   Connecticut,   Pennsyl- 
vania and  Maryland. 

IV  Government  in  the  colonies  prior  to  the  Revolution. 

1  Nature  of  the  first  charters. 

References:  Thwaites,  Colonies,  60;  Elson,  United  States,  61; 
Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  51,  52,  64;  Hart,  Actual  Government, 
42,  1st  par. 

2  The  necessity  for  self-government. 

References:  Hart,  Actual  Government,  41,  43,  last  par.;  Fiske, 
Beginnings,  105;  Fiske,  Old  Virginia,  I,  186,  187,  240, 
243-49,  284. 

3  The  need  for  control  by  the  home  government. 

Spanish,  French  and  Dutch  settlements  in  America;  Indians; 
commerce;  disputes  between  colonies;  religious  intolerance. 

Additional  topic: 
Find  in  standard  histories  how  affairs  in  the  colonies  called  for  regula- 
tion by  the  British  government. 


256  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

V  Steps  toward  colonial  union. 

1  New  England  Confederation,  1643. 

References:  Macdonald,  Select  Charters,  no.  19;  Fiske,  Begin- 
nings, 153-62;  Thwaites,  Colonies,  156-59;  Elson,  United 
States,  120-21. 

2  The  first  colonial  congress,  1690. 

References:  Elson,  United  States,  144,  163,  164;  Roberts,  New 
York,  I,   207,   208. 

3  The  Albany  Congress;  Franklin's  plan  of  union,  1754. 
References:  Thwaites,  Colonies,   270-71;  Elson,   United  States, 

176,  177;  Old  South  Leaflets,  no.  9;  Franklin,  Autobiography, 
ch.  10;  Roberts,  New  York,  I,  316,  317. 

Additional  topic: 
Summary  of  the  legislative  powers  granted  to  the  Grand  Council  in 
Franklin's  plan. 
Reference:  see  sections  in  italics  in  Old  South  Leaflets,  no.  9. 

4  The  Stamp  Act  Congress. 
Cause;  how  called;  acts;  results. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  44-53  ;  Fiske,  War  of 
Independence,  39-51;  Elson,  United  States,  224-27;  Hart, 
Comtemporaries,  II,  nos.  138,  141,  142,  143;  Macdonald. 
Select  Charters,  nos.  57   and   59. 

Additional  topic: 
From  the  "Declarations  of  Rights  and  Grievances  of  the  Colonists," 
select  six  of  the  most  important  declarations. 
Reference:  Hart,  Contemporaries,  II,  no.   141  or  Macdonald,  Select 
Charters,  no.  59. 

5  The  First  Continental  Congress. 
Cause;  how  summoned;  acts;  results. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  60-63  >  Elson, 
United  States,  234-36;  Fiske,  Revolution,  I,  100-10;  Mac- 
donald, Select  Charters,  no.  72,  73;  Green,  Short  History  of 
the  English  People,  777,  778;  Gardiner,  Students'  History  of 
England,  780,  782. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Select  three  important  constitutional  principles  set  forth  in  the 
"Declaration  and  Resolves"  1774. 
Reference:  Macdonald,  Select  Charters,  no.  72. 
B  Committees  of  Correspondence. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the   Union,   57,  61;  Elson,   United 
States,  234-36;  Fiske,  Revolution,  I,  77-80. 
C  Classes  of  colonies ;  points  of  similarity. 

References:  Hart,  Actual  Government,   43,   44;  Thwaites,    Colonies 
58-63;  Elson,   United  States,  210-13. 


CIVIL    GOVERNMENT  257 

6  Strife  of  colonial  legislatures  with  royal  and  proprietary 
governors. 
References:  Thwaites,  Colonies,  271-77;  G.  Bancroft,  History 
of  the  United  States,  II,  ch.  15,  pt  3,  or  Larned,  History  for 
Ready  Reference,  2335;  Roberts,  New  York,  I,  220,  230, 
256,   268-78,  287. 

Additional  topics: 
A  The  principal  features  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 

that  were  foreshadowed  in  colonial  governments. 
B  Popular  rebellions  in  Virginia  and  in  New  York;  Bacon  and  Leis- 
ter; causes  and  results. 
See  indexes  of  standard  histories. 

VI  The  Revolution  and  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

1  Causes. 

a  Internal  causes:  taxation  by  representative  bodies  a  funda- 
mental doctrine  in  England  and  America;  the  American 
theory  of  representation  as  opposed  to  the  English  theory 
and  practice;  spirit  of  liberty  in  the  colonies. 

References:  Green,  Short  History  of  the  English  People,  760; 
Gardiner,  Students'  History  of  England,  771;  Elson,  United 
States,  228;  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  65,  66;  Hart, 
Contemporaries,  II,  nos.  138,  143;  Cheney,  Short  History 
of  England,  587,  588;  Lecky,  American  Revolution,  84-92. 

b  External  causes :  character  of  George  3 ;  Navigation  Acts 
and  their  evasions;  Writs  of  Assistance;  the  Stamp  Act, 
the  Townshend  Acts;  repressive  measures;  attacks  on 
colonial  legislatures  and  colonial  courts;  the  American 
Revolution,  in  some  respects,  an  outgrowth  of  party  strife 
in  England. 

References:  Green,  Short  History  of  England,  761,  762:  Hart, 
Formation  of  the  Union,  45-56;  Elson,  United  States,  231- 
35;  Fiske,  War  of  Independence,  I,  51;  63;  64-76;  Coman  & 
Kendall,  History  of  England,  389-90;  Cheney,  Short  His- 
tory of  England,  589-92. 

2  The  second  Continental  Congress  1775. 

First  acts  and  attitude;  change  of  attitude;  Declaration  of 
Independence. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  73-74;  75-80;  Elson, 
United  States,  243-44;  250-54;  Fiske,  Revolution,  I,  158-63; 
Hart,  Contemporaries,  II,  no.  186,  188  Hill,  Liberty  Docu- 
ments, 183-203. 


258  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

3  Formation  of  state  governments. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  80-82 ;  Elson,  United 
States,  252:  326;  Hart,  Contemporaries,  II,  no.  187;  Hart, 
Actual  Government,   46-48. 

4  The  Articles  of  Confederation. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  104-6;  109, 
no;  1 1 5-1 7;  Elson,  United  States,  318-24;  Hart,  Con- 
temporaries, II,  no.  189;  III,  no.  41;  Fiske,  Critical 
Period,  94-100;  104-9;  1 17-19;  J 50-56 ;  Higginson,  Larger 
History  of  the  United  States,  292-97 ;  Hill,  Liberty  Docu- 
ments, 216-26. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Find  in  some  standard  history  or  histories  references  to  the  most 
important  grievances  mentioned  in  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. 
Reference:    Declaration  of  Independence,  found  in  many  of  the 
standard  textbooks. 
B  Find  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation  principles  embodied  in  the 
Constitution. 
References:   Old  South  Leaflets,  no  2;   Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  204. 
C  A  summary  of  the  difficulties  that  disclosed  the  weakness  of  the 
Articles  of  Confederation. 
References:    See  §  VI,  4  of  this  syllabus. 

VII  The  Old  Northwest  Territory. 

1  The  land. 

The  boundaries;  the  George  Rogers  Clark  expedition;  treaty 
of  1783;  conflicting  claims  of  Virginia,  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut and  New  York. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  94,  95,  97;  Elson, 
United  States,  292 ;    313  ;  Old  South  Leaflets,  no.  40  and  41. 

2  A  national  territory. 

Cession  to  the  United  States  and  its  importance ;  the  Ordinance 
of  1787  and  its  provisions. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  107,  108,  also  maps  2 
and  3 ;  Elson,  United  States,  3 19,  3  20 ;  Hinsdale,  The  Old  North- 
west, rev.  ed.,  see  preface  maps  and  p.  165;  Hinsdale, 
American  Government,  ch.  41;  Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  228- 
43;  Fiske,  Critical  Period,  203,  213;  McMaster,  United 
States,  I,  507,  508. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Map  showing  the  conflicting  land  claims  to  the  Northwest  Territory 
of  Virginia,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and  New  York. 


CIVIL    GOVERNMENT  259 

B   Principles  of  the  Ordinance  of   1787   that  were  afterward  incor- 
porated in  the  Constitution  or  were  adopted  by  state  govern- 
ments. 
References:    Old  South  Leaflets,  no.   13,  or  Hill,  Liberty  Documents, 
228-36;  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

VIII  The  Constitution. 

1  The  federal  convention. 

Causes;    the  three  great  compromises. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  121-23;  Elson, 
United  States,  321-25  ;  330,  331 ;  Hinsdale,  American  Govern- 
ment, ch.  8  and  9;   Fiske,  Critical  Period,  223-90. 

2  Adoption  of  the   Constitution;    the  first    10   amendments  or 

"Bill  of  Rights." 
References:    The  preamble  of  the  Constitution;    Hart,  Forma- 
tion of  the    Union,    128-32;    Elson,    United  States,   334-37; 
Hinsdale,    American    Government,    127-29;     Fiske,    Critical 
Period,  336-50;    Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  261-63. 

3  Departments  of  government  established. 

References:  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  art.  I,  II, 
III;    Hart,  Actual  Government,  53,  54. 

a  The  legislative  department:  the  House  of  Representatives; 
composition,  qualifications  and  choice  of  members,  special 
powers;  the  Senate,  composition,  qualifications  and  choice 
of  members,  special  powers;  general  powers  granted  to 
Congress ;  general  powers  denied  to  Congress ;  legislative 
powers  denied  to  states. 
References:  Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  245-52;  Hinsdale, 
American  Government,  144-232;  standard  textbooks  of 
civics,  consult  indexes;  Bryce,  American  Commonwealth, 
I,  ch.  10  and  13. 

Additional  topic: 
A  chart  showing  powers  granted  and  powers  denied  to  each  house, 
to  Congress,  to  the  states. 
b  Executive  department:    the  president;    qualifications,  term, 
manner  of  election,  powers,  removal  from  office. 
References:     Hill,    Liberty    Documents,     253-56;     Hinsdale, 
American  Government,  ch.  31  and  32;   standard  textbooks, 
see  "  President  "  in  the  indexes;  Bryce,  American  Common- 
wealth,!, 53-58;  Hart,  Actual  Government,  273-77;  Elson, 
United  States,    805-12;    Wilson,    Division  and    Reunion, 
270,  271;  Hart,  Actual  Government,  304,  305. 


20O  -  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

c  Judicial  department:  organization  and  powers;  appoint- 
ment of  justices  and  judges;  terms  of  office;  constitu- 
tional provision  in  regard  to  salaries. 
References:  Hinsdale,  American  Government,  296-300;  stand- 
ard textbooks,  see  indexes,4'  Federal  Courts,"  "Judiciary," 
etc.;  Hart,   Actual  Government,   296-301. 

4  Miscellaneous  provisions  of  the  Constitution. 

Persons ;  states ;  the  public  debt ;  the  supremacy  of  the  general 

government. 
References:    Constitution  of  the  United    States,   art.   IV  and 

VI;    Hinsdale,  American   Government,  ch.    40,    41,   42,    44; 

standard  textbooks. 

5  Overlapping  powers. 

Executive  and  judicial  powers  conferred  on  Senate  and  House; 
legislative  and  judicial  powers  conferred  on  the  President; 
independence  and  authority  of  the  judiciary. 
References:  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  art.  II,  §  2,  If  2; 
art.  I,  §2,  If  5;   §3,116;   §5,  U  1 ;   §  5.  T  »- 

art.  I,  §  7,  If  2  and  3;   art.  II,  §  3;   art.  II,  §  2, 
H  1  and  2. 

art.  Ill,  §  1  and  2;    Hinsdale,  American  Govern- 
ment, 295. 

Additional  topic: 
Make  a  chart  showing  the  exceptions  to  the  usual  division  and  dis- 
tribution of  powers  among  the  legislative,  executive  and  judicial 
departments. 

6  Amendments. 

Two  methods  of  proposing  amendments;  two  methods  of 
ratifying  amendments;  the  first  10  amendments;  the  nth 
amendment  and  its  relation  to  the  doctrine  of  states  rights; 
the  12th  amendment  and  its  cause;  the  main  provisions  of 
the  13th,  14th  and  15th  amendments. 

References:  Constitution,  art.  V;  Hinsdale,  American  Govern- 
ment, 340,  341;  Hart,  Actual  Government,  58,  Tf  4,  59 ;  Hins- 
dale, American  Government,  ch.  47,  48;  Hart,  Formation  of 
the  Union,  142,  146;  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  259-70; 
Elson,  United  States,  340,  793,  796,  798,  799. 

7  The  elastic  clause. 

References:  Compare  the  preamble  and  art.  I,  §  8,  1f  18,  of  the 
Constitution;  Hinsdale,  American  Government,  130,  232-35; 
Elson,  United  States,  348-51;  standard  textbooks  of  civil 
government. 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT  26 1 

IX  Political  parties. 

1  The  general  principles  on  which  the  people  divided  into  parties. 
References:    See  references   on    7   of  the   last   section;    Hart, 

Formation  of  the  Union,  130;  133-35;  I4°~4Ii  Fiske,  Criti- 
cal Period,  329,  344-46;  Old  South  Leaflets,  no.  12  second 
number  of  the  Federalist;    Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  267. 

2  The  Federalists  in  control,  1 789-1801. 

a  Organization  of  Congress,  of  Cabinet,  and  of  national  courts; 
the  speaker  of  the  House. 
References:    Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  142-46;    Elson, 
United   States,    342-44;     Hart,    Actual   Government,    297; 
Hinsdale,  American  Government,  284-91,  293,  294. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Limitations  in  the  Constitution  on  the  national  taxation. 
B  Jay's  treaty. 
b  Revenue   and  finance:    the  tariff,   the  excise;    the  public 
debts;  the  National  Bank. 
References:    Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  146-47;  148-51; 
Elson,  United  States,  343;  344-48;    Lodge,  Life  of  Hamil- 
ton,   108-14;    Hart,   Contemporaries,   III,  no.    78;    Hart, 
Contemporaries,  III,  no.  85  and  86;  Riverside  Biographical 
Series,  lives  of  Jefferson  and    Hamilton;     Hart,    Actual 
Government,  394-96. 
Jeffersonian  Republican  or  Democratic-Republican  party,  1801- 

17:    Federalists  in  opposition. 
a  The  party  policy:    decentralization;    decrease  of  army  and 
navy;    repeal  of  tax  laws;    attack  on  judiciary. 
References:    Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  180-85;    Elson, 
United  States,  380-83. 
b  Reversal  of  Jeffersonian  theory  in  the  purchase  of  Louisiana. 
References:     Hart,    Formation   of   the    Union,    188;     Elson, 
United  States,  383-86. 
c  The  War  of  1812-  foreign  relations;   advent  of  young  Repub- 
licans afterward  National  Republicans  and  Whigs ;  failure 
of  peace  policy;  the  Hartford  convention  and  collapse  of 
the  Federalist   party;     industrial    changes  caused  by  the 
war;  protective  tariff. 
References:   Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  191-98;  203,  204; 
217;  221;  225-29;   Elson,  United  States,  394;  400-3;  413; 
446;  45J-53;   Schurz,  Life  of  Clay,  I,  ch.  5. 
4  Reorganization  of  parties,  1817-29:    the    Democratic   Repub- 
licans in  control. 


262  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

a  New  movements,  new  issues  and  new  methods. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  224-31;  238-41; 
245-51 ;  253-55  ;  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  4-7  ;  9-17 ; 
Elson,   United  States,  452,  453;    456-61;    464,  466. 

b  Rivalry  of  Clay  and  Jackson  and  the  formation  of  new 
parties. 
References:  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  17-26;  Elson,' 
United  States,  468,  469 ;  lives  of  Jackson  and  Clay ;  Schurz, 
Clay,  and  Sumner,  Jackson  in  the  American  Statesmen 
Series,  are  full  and  interesting;  Brown,  Jackson  in  the 
Riverside  Biographical  Series,  is  brief  but  good. 

5  Democrats  and  Whigs,  1829-61. 

a  Jackson:    the  United  States  Bank;    nullification. 

References:    Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  34,  35;    59-65, 
72-82;    Elson,  United  States,  480,  481;    487-96. 
b  Texas:    revival  of  sectional  controversy;    Abolitionist  and 
Free  Soil  parties. 
References:     Wilson,   Division   and   Reunion,    143-47;     165; 
169;    Elson,  United  States,  533,  534. 
c  California  and  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of   1850. 

References:  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  172-78;  Elson, 
United  States,  540-56. 
d  The  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  and  the  triumph  of 
the  Republican  party. 
References:  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  182-8 5  ;  187,188; 
199-208;  Elson,  United  States,  571-79;  Hart,  Source 
Book,  nos.  108,  109,  in;  Old  South  Leaflets,  no.  82,  83. 

6  Republicans  and  Democrats,  1861 . 

a  Union  or  disunion. 

References:    Wilson,   Division  and  Reunion,    208-12;     215; 
218-21;   226,  227;   232,  233;  Elson,  United  States,  628-33; 
639-45;   712-16;   730-32.    Morse,  Life  of  Lincoln, 
b  The  13th,  14th  and  15th  amendments. 

References:  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,    259-69;  Elson, 
United  States,  793-94;   796;   799. 
c  Reconstruction  of  the  South. 

References:   Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  2 54-57  ;    260-62; 
266-70;    275,  276;    Elson,  United  States,  791-805;    Hart, 
Source  Book,  no.  129,  130,  131,  132. 
d  Tariff,  finance  and  commerce. 

References:  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  290-92,  294,296; 
Elson,  United  States,  829-32;  864;  865-68;  874;  875; 
878,879;  886-89;  Hart,  Source  Book,  no.  136. 


CIVIL   GOVERNMENT  263 

7  Party  machinery. 

Original  intent  of  the  Constitution  in  regard  to  the  choice  of 

president;    the  election  of  Jefferson;    the  12th  amendment; 

the  election  of  1876  and  1877;    the  Congressional  caucus; 

nominations  by  state  Legislatures ;  nominating  conventions ; 

party  platforms ;  the  machine ;  party  leaders. 

References:   compare  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  art  II, 

§  1,  ^  2  and  the  12th  amendment;  Hart,  Formation  of  the 

Union,  172  and  173;  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  17,  19, 

62,   63;    283-86;    Elson,    United  States,   372;    466;    507; 

835-41;     Hart,    Actual   Government,    87-112;     Hinsdale, 

American  Government,  ch.   29  and  30;    Bryce,  American 

Commonwealth,    ch.    53-63. 

Additional  topics: 
A  Make  a  chart  showing  in  parallel  columns  the  names  of  the  two 

principal  opposing  parties  and  the  policies  favored  by  each. 
B  Find  arguments  for  or  against  the  election  of  president  by  popular 

vote. 

X  Present  government  as  developed  under  the  Constitution. 

1  The  suffrage  and  its  extension. 

a  Civil  and  political  rights ;  naturalization ;  voting. 

References:    See  indexes,  standard  textbooks  of    civil  gov- 
ernment ;   Hinsdale,  American  Government,  216-17. 
b  History  of  the  suffrage. 

References:  Elson,  United  States,  326;  479,  480;  796-98; 
Thwaites,  Colonies,  142;  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union, 
14;  246;  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  15,  16;  268-70; 
Hinsdale,  American  Government,  ch.  LIV;  Hart,  Actual 
Government,  66-71;  82-84. 
c  Woman  suffrage. 

References:     Bryce,  American   Commonwealth,    II,    549-62; 
Hart,  Actual  Government,  70. 

2  Congress  at  work. 

a  The  speaker  of  the  House. 

References:     Hart,   Formation   of   the    Union,    142;     Elson, 

United  States,  868;    Hinsdale,  American  Government,  151, 

152;  Hart,  Actual  Government,  231-33. 
b  The  Senate  and  its  prerogatives. 

References:    Hart,  Actual  Government,  216-19,   27Ii    Elson, 

United  States,  805 ;  852-53  ;  Hinsdale,  American  Government, 

160-63;    Bryce,  American  Commonwealth,  I,  104-10. 
c  Legislative    committees    and    legislative    debate;     compare 

House  and  Senate. 


264  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

References:   Hart,  Actual  Government,  233-36;  239-40;  242; 
248,    249;     Hinsdale,    American   Government,    192,    193; 
Bryce,  American  Commonwealth,  I,  154-58;   see  standard 
textbooks  of  civil  government  for  committees,  bills. 
d  The  making  of  a  law. 

References:  See  standard  textbooks  of  civil  government. 

3  The  executive  department. 

a  The  Cabinet:  present  Cabinet  compared  with  the  first 
Cabinet;  appointment  and  removal  of  Cabinet  officers; 
general  duties  of  each  department  of  the  Cabinet. 
References:  See  standard  textbooks  of  civil  government; 
Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  144-45;  Elson,  United 
States,  343,  344;  Hart,  A  dual  Go  vernment,  277-82;  Hins- 
dale, American  Government,  284-91. 

b  President's  powers  under  the  Constitution;  the  president's 
influence. 
References:  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  art.  II,  §2  and 
3;  see  Standard  textbooks  of  civil  government ;  Hinsdale, 
American  Government,  ch.  32;  Hart,  Actual  Government, 
269-74;  Bryce,  American  Commonwealth,  I,  224-27. 

4  Federal  courts. 

a  Classes   of   courts:     Supreme;     Circuit    Court   of   Appeals; 
Circuit  Courts;  District  Courts,  Court  of  Claims. 
References:    Hinsdale,  American  Government,  ch.  34;    Hart, 
Actual  Government,    301-4;     see   standard   textbooks   of 
civil  government. 
b  The  jurisdiction  of  federal  courts:   cases  involving  the  Con- 
stitution ;  federal  law ;  federal  parties  and  states. 
References:     Hinsdale,    American   Government,    ch.    35.    36; 
Hart,    Actual    Government,    309-14;     Bryce,    American 
Commonwealth,   I,    241-43;    standard   textbooks   of  civil 
government. 
c  Federal  writs:  habeas  corpus,  mandamus,  injunction. 

Reference:   Hart,  Actual  Government,  307,  308. 
d  The  United  States  courts  and  federal  statutes. 

References:  Bryce,  American  Commonwealth,  I,  268-71; 
Hart,  Actual  Government,  318,  319. 

5  The  civil  service. 
a  History. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  174;  179;  180; 
246;  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  27-34;  277;  293,  294; 
Elson,  United  States,  381-83;  484;  853-56;  Hart,  Source 
Book,  363-65;  Hart, 'Actual  Government,  282-90. 


CIVIL    GOVERNMENT  265 

b  Civil  Service  Commission. 
References:      Hart,     Actual    Government,    290-92;      Bryce, 
American  Commonwealth,  II,  847. 
c   Difficulties  in  enforcing  civil  service  laws. 

References:  Hart,  Actual  Government,  292-94;  Bryce, 
A  merican  Commonwealth  ,11,27;   13  9-4 1 . 

6  Taxation. 

a  Direct  and  indirect  taxes. 

b  Constitutional  limitations  on  the  taxing  power  of  the  United 
States. 

c  Constitutional  limitations  on  the  taxing  power  of  the  states. 

d  General  policy  of  the  United  States  in  regard  to  direct  taxes. 

e  Advantages  and  dangers  of  indirect  taxation. 

References:  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  art.  I,  §8, 
11 1 J  §  9»  11  4-6 ;  §  10,  If  2  and  3  ;  standard  textbooks  of  civil 
government;  Hinsdale,  American  Government,  194-98;  240, 
241;     246;   Hart,  Actual  Government,  383-406. 

Additional  topic: 
Natural  limitations  of  taxation. 
References:  See  "Taxation"  in  standard  textbooks  of  political  economy. 

7  Territories. 

a  The  first  territorial  organization. 

References:   [See  §  VII  of  this  syllabus.] 

b  Accessions  of  territory. 

References:  Hinsdale,  American  Government,  332-35;  Hart, 
Actual  Government,  335-46. 

c  Organized  dependencies  or  territories.  Elson,  United  States, 
898,  899;   Hart,  Actual  Government,  364-69. 

d  Unorganized  or  temporary  dependencies.  Hinsdale,  Ameri- 
can Government,  330-33  :  Elson,  United  States,  900-2 ;  Hart, 
Actual  Government,  371,  37 2. 

XI  Foreign  relations.  '  ] 

1  International  law. 

References:  See  dictionaries,  cyclopedias  and  standard  text- 
books of  civil  government  for  the  definition  of  international 
law. 

2  Diplomatic  agents,  the  general  classes. 

References:  Hart,  Actual  Government,  433-39;  standard 
textbooks  of  civil  government. 

3  The  Monroe  Doctrine. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  241-44;  Wilson, 
Division  and  Reunion,  272;  Elson,  United  States,  463-64; 
778,  779;   884. 


266  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Additional  topics: 
A  Make  a  chart  of  important  treaties  negotiated  by  the  United  States 

showing  briefly  the  terms  secured. 
B  Make  a  list  of  10  important  rules  generally  recognized  as  parts  of 

international  law. 
C  Arbitration  between  England  and  the  United  States. 
D  The  Hague  Conference,  1899. 

References:  Pupils  should  find  their  own  references  to    the  above 
topics  and  cite  their  references  in  their  paper. 

XII  The  government  of  New  York  State. 

1  The  first  Constitution  of  New  York. 

References:  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  80-82;  Elson, 
United  States,  252;  Roberts,  New  York,  II,  434-36;  Prentice, 
History  of  New  York,  255-61. 

2  Revisions  of  the  Constitution. 

References:  Wilson,  Division  and  Reunion,  12-16;  Elson, 
United  States,  480;  Roberts,  New  York,  II,  562-71; 
Prentice,  History  of  New  York,  378-80;  404,  405  ;  Anderson- 
Flick,  Short  History  of  the  State  of  New  York,  136-38;  186- 
87;    272-73. 

3  Present  government  of  New  York. 

References:  Constitution  of  New  York  State;  standard  text- 
books of  civil  government. 

a  Citizens  and  their  rights. 

b  Voters  and  voting. 

c  The  Legislature:  the  Senate,  the  Assembly;  special  powers 
of  each  branch;  restraints  on  legislation;  appropriation 
bills. 

d  The  executive:  qualifications  and  powers;  the  veto;  ad- 
ministrative offices. 

e  The  judiciary:  classes  of  courts;  choice  of  justices  and 
judges. 

/    State  debts  and  state  credit;   local  debts  and  local  credit. 

g  The  school  system. 

h  County  government. 

i    State  militia. 

j   Amendments. 

Additional  topic: 
Find  resemblances  between  the  Constitution  of  New  York  State  and 
the  federal  Constitution. 

XIII  Cities. 

1  Cities  the  first  states. 
References:  [See  §  II,  4,  a  of  this  syllabus.] 


CIVIL    GOVERNMENT  267 

Roman  municipia. 

References:    Myers,  Ancient  History,  396;    Morey,  Outlines  of 

Roman  History,  93. 
Cities  the  centers  of  medieval  progress. 
a  City  charters. 

References:   Green,  Short  History  of  the  English  People,  92, 
93  ;  Taswell  Langmead,  English  Constitutional  History,  83  ; 
Gardiner,  Student's   History  of  England,    168-69;     West, 
Modern  History,  121-27. 
b  Italian  cities. 

References:   Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  304, 
305;   West,  Modern  History,  127-29;   Myers,  Middle  Ages, 
291-95. 
c  Hanseatic  League. 

References:      West,    Modern    History     129-32;      Robinson, 
Readings  in  European  History,   412-15;    Myers,  Middle 
Ages,  289-93. 
d  Medieval  cities  and  education. 

References:    Myers,  Middle  Ages,  308,  309;    West,  Modern 
History,  194-99. 
Drift  of  population  toward  cities  since  1800. 
References:     Elson,    United   States,   478;     Hart,    Actual    Gov- 
ernment, 181,  182;    Bryce,  American  Commonwealth,  I,  622. 
American  city  charters. 

References:   Hart,    Actual  Government,  183-88;   standard  text- 
books of  civil  government;   Bryce,  American  Commonwealth, 
I,  623. 
City  government. 
General  powers  and  duties  of  aldermen,  mayor  and  city  judges; 

the  city  boards. 
References:    standard  textbooks  of   civil  government;    a  copy 
of  the  local  city  charter;   Hart,  Actual  Government,  186-99. 

Additional  topic: 
Municipal  ownership  of  public  utilities. 

References:  Standard  textbooks  of  political  economy ;  Bryce,  American 
Commonwealth,  J,  648,  649. 


268  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 


ECONOMICS 
I  Production. 

i  Nature. 
a  Environment:   climate;  land  surfaces;  geologic  character. 
b  Natural  agents:   animate  agents;  inanimate  agents. 

2  Wealth. 

a  Nature  of  wealth:  distinction  between  the  popular  con- 
ception and  the  economic  conception  of  wealth;  material 
wealth;  immaterial  wealth;  characteristics  of  material 
wealth. 

b  Utility:  definition;  utility  as  measured  by  money. 

c  Factors  in  production  of  material  wealth:  natural  agents; 
land;   labor;    capital. 

3  Labor. 

a  Historical :  gild  period  in  England ;  domestic  period  in  Eng- 
land; factory  period  in  England;  problems  to  which  the 
factory  system  gave  rise ;  methods  of  agriculture  and  of  manu- 
facture before  the  Industrial  Revolution ;  the  Industrial  Revo- 
lution ;  hardships  to  labor  during  the  process  of  readjustment ; 
the  French  Revolution  of  1848  in  its  relation  to  labor  and 
capital;  the  French  Commune,  its  economic  significance. 
Industrial  changes  in  the  United  States  following  the  War  of 
181 2;  rapid  industrial  development  in  the  United  States. 

b  Kinds  of  labor:  productive  labor;  unproductive  labor;  physi- 
cal labor;   mental  labor. 

c  Labor  as  a  factor  in  production:  changes  wrought  by  labor; 
division  of  labor ;  separation  of  employments ;  specialization 
of  skill ;  influence  of  specialization  of  skill  on  combination ; 
division  of  labor,  its  advantages  and  disadvantages; 
division  of  labor  limited  by  the  nature  of  the  process,  by 
amount  of  capital,  by  extent  of  markets. 

4  Capital. 

a  Nature  of  capital:  the  root  idea  of  capital;  fixed  capital; 
circulating  capital;    productive  capital. 

b  Production  of  capital :  beginning  of  capital ;  growth  of  capi- 
tal ;  ability  and  disposition  of  the  individual  to  save  capital. 

c  Capital  as  a  factor  in  production:  the  workman's  tools;  the 
manufacturer's  plant  and  working  capital;  the  capitalist's 
investments  in  industry  and  in  commerce;  borrowed  capi- 
tal as  a  factor  in  production. 


ECONOMICS  269 

II  Exchange. 

1  Value. 

Nature  of  value;  nominal  value,  real  value;  distinction  be- 
tween value  and  price;  normal  value;  value  in  exchange; 
general  rise  of  values  impossible. 

2  Money. 

a  Nature  of  money;    primary  function  of  money. 

b  Historical:  barter;  need  of  common  denominator  of  value; 
various  commodities  used  as  money  in  the  past ;  silver  and 
gold  coinage  in  the  United  States;  silver  and  gold  dollars 
of  1792;  weight  of  the  gold  dollar  reduced  (1834);  coinage 
of  silver  prohibited  (1873);  the  Bland  Act;  the  Sherman 
Act  and  its  detrimental  effects ;   repeal  of  the  Sherman  Act. 

c  Metallic  money :  qualities  of  good  metallic  money ;  qualities 
of  gold  and  silver  fitting  them  for  use  as  money;  relative 
merits  of  gold  and  silver  for  use  in  coinage;  the  world's 
present  and  prospective  supply  of  gold  and  silver;  the  gold 
standard;  Gresham's  Law;  bimetallism;  international  bi- 
metallism. 

d  Credit  money:  convertible  and  inconvertible  notes ;  inflation; 
present  forms  of  paper  money  in  use  in  the  United  States, 
their  security  and  stability  of  value. 

3  Banks  and  banking. 

a  Historical:  Jewish  money  lenders;  Florentine  banks  and 
bankers;  origin  and  development  of  banking  in  England; 
the  Bank  of  England;  origin  and  development  of  banking 
in  the  United  States ;  the  United  States  bank ;  state  banks ; 
"wildcat  banks";  national  banks. 

b  Functions  of  banks:  deposits;  loans;  discounts;  fluctuation 
in  rates  of  discount ;  domestic  and  foreign  exchanges ;  issues 
of  notes;  bank  money,  its  limits  and  safeguards ;  reserves 
and  their  management;  excess  and  scarcity  of  currency. 

4  Credit. 

a  Nature  of  credit:   forms  of  credit;   book  accounts;   checks; 

drafts  and  bills  of  exchange;    loans;    call  and  time  loans; 

negotiable  paper;    bank  credits;    the  clearing  house. 
b  Useful  functions  of  credit :   standard  of  deferred  payments ; 

value  in  developing  the  natural  resources  of  a  country  and 

in  promoting  its  industries;  value  in  mercantile  enterprises. 
c  Abuse  of  credit:    overconfidence ;   extravagance  in  personal 

consumption ;  promotion  of  doubtful  and  shady  enterprises ; 

overcapitalization;    speculation;    the  cause  of  commercial 

crises. 


2/0  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

5  International  trade. 

Based  on  comparative  cost  of  production;    balance  of  trade; 

fluctuations  in  trade  balances;    advantages  of  international 

trade. 
Free  trade  and  protection :   English  practices  past  and  present ; 


past  policies  in  the 
tariff    for    revenue ; 


repeal  of  the  Corn  Law  in  England 
United  States  regarding  protection 
tariff  for  protection;  the  laisser-faire  doctrine;  leading 
arguments  for  free  trade  and  for  protection  stated  and  com- 
pared; relative  strength  of  these  arguments  as  forming  a 
basis  of  action  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment;   tariff  revision;    reciprocity. 

Ill  Distribution. 

i   Interest. 

a  Nature  of  interest:  causes  giving  rise  to  interest;  owner- 
ship of  capital. 

b  Rates  of  interest:  causes  of  differences  in  rates  in  different 
countries  and  localities  at  different  times ;  volume  of  loanable 
money;  risks  involved  in  loans;  security  and  permanency 
of  investment ;  the  returns  of  industry  as  a  factor  in  interest 
rates ;  probable  general  tendency  of  interest  rates  to  decline ; 
influences  tending  to  retard  decline  in  rates. 

2  Rent. 

a  Nature  of  rent:   ground  rent;   agricultural  rent;  house  rent. 

b  Rent  values:  causes  affecting  the  rent  values  of  farms, 
houses  and  stores  in  different  localities  and  at  different 
times;  improvements  as  affecting  rents;  the  "unearned 
increment";    diminishing  returns  from  rents;    urban  rents. 

3  Wages. 

a  Nature  of  wages:  nominal  wages;  real  wages;  customary 
wage;   living  wage. 

b  Remuneration  of  labor:  labor  regarded  as  a  commodity; 
the  labor  market;  supply  and  demand;  Ricardo's  "iron 
law  of  wages";  standard  of  comfort;  underpaid  service; 
the  workman's  just  share;  wages  as  influenced  by  cost  of 
living,  by  individual  characteristics,  by  efficiency  of  ser- 
vice, by  agreeableness  of  occupation,  by  social  esteem,  by 
personal  risks  and  chances  of  success,  by  opportunities  for 
promotion;  wages  as  affected  by  the  extensive  use  of 
machinery,  by  modern  methods  of  industrial  organization, 
by  extensive  international  trade;  wages  as  influenced  by 
labor  organizations;  the  wages  of  women. 


ECONOMICS  271 

/ 

4  Profits. 

Nature  of  profits:  normal  profits;  abnormal  profits  through 
monopoly;  tendency  of  profits  to  a  minimum;  profits  in 
times  of  business  prosperity;  profits  in  times  of  business 
depression;  business  methods  and  business  management  as 
affecting  profits. 

5  Taxation. 

Nature  of  taxation:  the  right  of  government  to  levy  taxes; 
proper  objects  of  government  expenditure ;  difficulties  attend- 
ing taxation ;  general  principles  that  should  govern  in  taxa- 
tion; direct  taxes;  indirect  taxes;  general  property  tax; 
the  single  tax;  methods  of  raising  revenue  practised  by 
the  United  States  government;  methods  of  raising  revenue 
practised  by  the  New  York  State  government 

IV  Applied  economics. 

1  Modern  industrial  organization. 

a  Steps  in  industrial  evolution:  individual  endeavor;  part- 
nership;  corporation;   giant  industries,  trusts. 

b  The  capitalist  and  entrepreneur:  functions  of  each  in  the 
modern  industrial  system. 

c  The  trust:  nature  of  a  trust;  purposes  in  its  organization; 
effect  on  volume  of  production,  cost  of  production,  and 
selling  prices;  effect  on  wages  of  workmen;  evils  arising 
from  the  organization  of  trusts;  proper  methods  of  regu- 
lating and  restraining  trusts. 

2  Relations  of  labor  and   capital. 

a  Causes  of  the  conflict  of  labor  and  capital ;  evils  to  labor  and 
to  capital  lesulting  from  this  conflict;  origin  of  trade- 
unions;  trade-unions  in  England;  labor  organizations  in 
the  United  States;  useful  functions  of  labor  organizations; 
influence  of  labor  organizations  on  workmen;  the  "walking 
delegate";  the  strike  as  a  remedy  for  labor  troubles;  the 
boycott;    the  lockout;    conciliation,  mediation,  arbitration. 

b  The  proper  .elation  of  labor  and  capital — partners  in  in- 
dustry;   effect  of  such  relationship  on  wages  and  profits. 

3  Socialism. 

a  Various  uses  of  the  term  socialism ;  features  common  to  all 
modern  socialistic  schemes;  objections  to  socialism  as  a 
scheme    for    the    production    and    distribution    of    wealth. 

b  Communism:  profit-sharing,  its  possibilities  and  dangers; 
municipal  ownership  of  public  utilities;  nationalization  of 
the  telegraph  and  telephone;  land  nationalization;  the 
nationalization  of  capital. 


GROUP  5 
BUSINESS  SUBJECTS 
Elementary  bookkeeping  Commercial  geography 

Advanced  bookkeeping  Business  correspondence 

Business  practice  and  technics  Business  writing 

Business  arithmetic  Stenography 

Commercial  law  Typewriting 

History  of  commerce 

BUSINESS  CREDENTIALS 

Four  state  business  credentials  are  offered  as  follows:  (i)  state 
business  diploma,  (2)  state  stenographers  diploma,  (3)  state  busi- 
ness certificate,  (4)  state  stenographers  certificate. 

Diplomas 

Diplomas  are  issued  only  to  those  who  have  an  education  equiv- 
alent to  graduation  at  a  registered  New  York  state  high  school. 
If  the  course  has  not  included  American  history,  civics,  and  econo- 
mics,1 Regents  examinations  in  these  subjects  must  be  passed. 

State  business  diploma.  To  obtain  the  state  business  diploma 
candidates  having  the  required  preliminary  education  must  be 
certified  as  having  completed  a  year's  course  in  a  registered  pro- 
prietary business  school.  Students  who  have  completed  a  four 
year  commercial  course  in  a  registered  high  school  are  also  eligible 
to  obtain  the  diploma,  but  every  candidate  is  required  to 
pass  examinations  in  elementary  bookkeeping,  advanced  book- 
keeping, business  practice  and  technics,  business  arithmetic,  com- 
mercial law,  history  of  commerce,1  commercial  geography,2  business 
correspondence  and  business  writing. 

State  stenographers  diploma.  The  state  stenographer's  diploma 
is  granted  on  the  same  terms  as  the  state  business  diploma,  except 
as  to  the  technical  examinations,  which  are  as  follows:  stenog- 
raphy (second  test)3  100  words  a  minute  passed  at  90%;  type- 
writing; business  correspondence. 

Certificates 
State  business  certificate.     This  credential  will  be  granted,  with- 
out regard  to  preliminary  education,  to  any  candidate  who  passes 
the  technical  examinations  set  for  the  state  business  diploma. 

English  history  or  ancient  history  may  be  substituted  for  economics. 

typewriting  and  stenography  (ioo  word  test,  passed  at  90%)  may  be  offered  in  place  of 
commercial  geography  and  history  of  commerce  for  the  state  business  certificate. 

8There  is  a  first  test  (50  words  a  minute)  open  to  the  student.  Each  test  is  given  2  counts, 
but  one  who  completes  the  second  test  is  credited  with  the  first  also. 

272 


ELEMENTARY  BOOKKEEPING  2J$ 

State  stenographers  certificate.  This  credential  will  be  granted, 
without  regard  to  preliminary  education,  to  any  candidate  who 
passes  the  technical  examinations  set  for  the  state  stenographers 
diploma. 

Credentials  should  be  claimed.  Business  and  stenographers 
credentials  when  earned  should  be  promptly  claimed  by  the  schools, 
with  remittance  of  fee. 

Outlines  of  the  work.  Tests  for  the  state  credentials  will  be 
based  on  the  following  outlines: 

ELEMENTARY  BOOKKEEPING 

The  chief  divisions  of  this  subject  toward  which  the  examina- 
tions are  mainly  directed  are  as  follows :  computations ;  records  of 
business ;  business  forms  and  correspondence ;  technical  terms. 

i  Computations.  The  candidate  should  be  able  to  make  at 
sight  all  ordinary  business  computations,  relating  to: 

Extending  and  footing  a  bill  of  items. 

Simple  interest  and  other  problems  in  percentage,'  bank  discount 
and  true  discount  or  present  worth. 

Interest  when  partial  payments  have  been  made. 

Commission  and  brokerage. 

Simple  problems  in  partnership  settlements. 

Rapid  calculation  and  ready  use  of  fractions. 

2  Recording  business  transactions.  The  candidate  should  be 
able  to  open  a  simple  set  of  books  for  an  ordinary  business,  by 
single  entry  or  by  double  entry,  and  to  make  entries  necessary  to 
record  any  ordinary  transaction  in  such  a  way  that  the  exact  na- 
ture of  the  transaction  may  be  clearly  understood.  The  candidate 
should  be  able  to  change  a  set  of  books  from  single  to  double  entry, 
and  to  explain  the  main  points  of  difference  between  the  two  sys- 
tems. He  should  be  acquainted  with  the  following  books,  inti- 
mately as  to  the  first  five,  and  generally  as  to  the  others,  so  that 
he  may  be  able  to  present  a  page  or  a  folio  of  his  own  ruling  from 
any  one  of  them: 

Daybook-journal  (commonly  called  "the  journal"). 

Cashbook. 

Ledger. 

Check  book. 

Bank  pass  book. 

Sales  book. 

Invoice  book. 

Bill  book. 


274  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

3  Business  correspondence  and  business  forms.  Business  letters 
should  be  characterized  by  brevity  and  clearness.  The  brevity 
that  falls  short  of  complete  statement  is  inexcusable.  The  usages 
and  courtesies  prevailing  among  intelligent  business  men  should  be 
duly  observed,  but  beyond  these  observances  the  purely  business 
letter  should  contain  only  the  words  needed  to  state  the  business 
in  hand  with  clearness  and  certainty.  The  candidate  should  be 
acquainted  with  some  method  of  filing  for  convenient  reference 
business  papers,  such  as  letters,  statements,  accounts  sales  and 
invoices.  He  should  know  the  law  concerning  the  making  and 
indorsement  of  commercial  paper  and  clearly  understand  the  mean- 
ing of  the  different  forms  of  indorsement.  He  should  know  the 
law  concerning  the  presentation  of  commercial  paper  for  payment 
or  for  acceptance  and  the  action  to  be  taken  in  case  of  nonpay- 
ment or  nonacceptance.  He  should  be  able  to  make  out  in  correct 
form  such  papers  as: 

Bills  of  goods  and  receipts  for  the  payment  of  money. 

Promissory  notes  and  time  drafts. 

Bank  checks  and  sight  drafts  on  individuals  or  firms. 

Bank  drafts  on  other  banks  and  specially  on  New  York  city 
banks. 
-  Invoices,  monthly  statements,  accounts  sales  and  deposit  tickets. 

Trial  balances,  statements  of  the  condition  of  a  business  and 
balance  sheets. 

4  Technical  terms.  Candidates  should  be  able  to  explain  any 
terms  pertaining  to  bookkeeping  or  to  general  business  that  are  in 
common  use  among  business  men  and  occur  in  the  ordinary  text- 
books on  bookkeeping,  including  such  signs  and  abbreviations  as 
are  in  common  use. 

Suggestions.  The  course  outlined  is  expected  to  fit  the  student 
to  keep  the  accounts  of  an  ordinary  business  by  either  single  entry 
or  double  entry. 

Ample  justification  for  the  large  amount  of  work  in  computa- 
tions required  in  connection  with  elementary  bookkeeping  is  found 
in  the  very  inefficient  preparation  in  arithmetic  of  the  students  who 
come  up  to  the  high  schools. 

Explicit  clearness  is  of  great  importance  in  all  records  made  in 
books  of  original  entry,  as  these  records,  after  certain  preliminary' 
proofs,  are  admitted  as  evidence  in  the  courts. 

The  journal  is  usually  a  principal  book  and  book  of  original  entry. 
The  cashbook,  in  the  pure  single  entry  system,  is  always  an  auxil- 
iary book,  used  for  keeping  an  account  of  the  cash.    In  double  entry 


ADVANCED    BOOKKEEPING  275 

it  is  usually  a  principal  book  and  a  book  of  original  entry,  and  as  such 
is  the  posting  medium  for  all  cash  items.  Extra  money  columns 
are  often  used  in  the  cashbook  and  sometimes  in  the  journal.  The 
ledger  is  the  book  of  accounts  and  the  index  to  all  business  trans- 
acted. The  check  book  is  a  book  of  blank  check  forms  with  stub 
attachment  on  which  is  usually  kept  the  record  of  all  checks  drawn 
and  of  all  sums  deposited  in  the  bank.  The  bank  pass  book 
contains  the  record,  made  by  the  bank,  of  all  moneys  deposited  by 
a  customer,  and  when  written  up  and  balanced  shows  the  con- 
dition of  the  account  on  the  bank  books.  The  sales  book  and  the 
invoice  book  are  books  of  original  entry,  often  used  as  principal 
books.  The  bill  book  is  an  auxiliary  book  used  as  a  record  of  time 
paper.  In  some  cases  it  is  used  as  a  principal  book.  The  daybook 
or  blotter  is  sometimes  used  as  a  history  of  the  business  transacted. 
In  such  cases  it  becomes  the  book  of  original  entry,  and  the  trans- 
actions are  posted,  through  the  journal  and  other  books  to  the 
ledger.  The  uses  of  the  daybook  have  been  largely  superseded  by 
the  daybook-journal  usually  called  the  journal. 

"Interest  &  discount"  should  not  be  used  as  the  name  of  a 
ledger  account.  Interest  is  always  interest — whether  it  be  paid 
for  the  use  of  money  already  enjoyed;  or  as  a  deduction  from  the 
face  of  a  note  when  discounted  at  a  bank;  or  as  a  rebate  when  an 
interest-bearing  obligation  is  paid  in  advance  of  maturity.  The 
term  "discount"  is  better  employed  in  connection  with  the  purchase 
or  sale  of  commodities  where  abatements  are  allowed,  as  merchan- 
dise discount  or  trade  discount,  in  which  connection  the  student  is 
not  likely  to  be  confused  by  the  term. 

ADVANCED  BOOKKEEPING 

The  test  in  advanced  bookkeeping  demands  a  higher  degree  of 
technical  knowledge  than  is  required  for  the  elementary  examination 
It  calls  for  ability  not  only  to  open  and  keep  accurately  the  accounts 
of  any  ordinary  business,  but  also  to  apply  to  that  business  such 
devices  as  tend  to  save  time  and  avoid  errors.  The  candidate 
should  have  a  clear  theoretical  knowledge  of  all  the  books  of  account 
in  common  use,  supplemented  by  a  considerable  practical  knowl- 
edge. Not  only  the  journal  but  the  cashbook,  sales  book,  invoice 
book  and  sometimes  the  bill  book,  will  be  used  as  principal  books 
of  original  entry.  The  journal  will  not  be  used  for  transactions 
that  can  be  conveniently  recorded  in  the  other  principal  books. 

The  candidate  should  have  a  working  knowledge  also  of  such 
subsidiary  ledgers  as  articulate  with  the  main  ledger,  specially  the 


276  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

sales  ledger  and  the  purchase  ledger,  which  are  used  somewhat 
extensively.  Special  columns  in  the  cashbook  and  sometimes  in 
the  journal  are  valuable  aids  to  the  bookkeeper  and  should  be 
understood  by  the  candidate.  The  voucher  system  of  bookkeeping 
s  in  use  in  many  lines  of  business  and  should  not  be  overlooked. 
The  distinctive  book  in  the  voucher  system  is  the  voucher  record. 
Candidates  should  be  able  to : 

1  Make  in  good  form  (on  paper  ruled  with  faint  blue  lines  only) 
all  ruling  necessary  for  a  page  or  folio  of  any  ordinary  book  of 
account  or  for  any  statement  from  the  books ; 

2  Explain  the  difference  between  single  and  double  entry  book- 
keeping and  change  any  set  of  books  from  single  to  double 
entry  or  from  double  to  single  entry,  and  know  the  names  and 
functions  of  the  accounts  used  in  bookkeeping ; 

3  Take  up  and  continue  any  practicable  set  of  books,  in  what- 
ever intelligible  form  they  may  have  been  kept,  whether  in  mer- 
cantile, manufacturing,  commission  or  transportation  business,  and 
whether  the  business  be  carried  on  by  an  individual,  a  firm,  or  a 
corporation ; 

4  Make  such  statements  from  and  entries  or  changes  in,  the 
books  of  a  business  as  may  be  necessary  when  a  partner  is  admitted 
or  when  ownership  is  changed  from  an  individual  proprietor  or 
partnership  to  a  corporation ; 

5  Make  quickly,  accurately  and  in  good  form  bills,  accounts 
sales,  statements  of  account,  commercial  paper,  bills  of  lading 
and  business  documents  in  common  use,  and  furnish  at  short  notice 
a  statement  of  the  condition  of  the  business. 

6  Explain  clearly  the  terminology  of  bookkeeping. 
Suggestions.     The  importance  of  books  of  original  entry  should 

be  strongly  emphasized,  and  the  teacher  should  see  that  every 
entry  in  such  books  in  made  so  clear  that  its  meaning  is  unmis- 
takable. 

In  the  commercial  courses  of  high  schools  much  of  the  bookkeep- 
ing instruction  can  be  given  advantageously  in  well  graded  classes. 
Discussion  by  the  class,  subject  to  moderation  and  correction  by 
the  teacher,  will  tend  to  fix  the  important  principles  firmly  in  the 
minds  of  the  students.  In  actual  writing  of  accounts,  however, 
individual  instruction  can  not  be  dispensed  with.  This  is  one  of  the 
strong  points  of  the  private  business  school  which  the  high  school 
can  not  afford  to  neglect.  It  enables  the  bright  student  to  do 
better  work  and  more  of  it  and  the  dull  one  will  be  saved  from  con- 
tinuing in  wrong  methods. 


BUSINESS   PRACTICE  AND  TECHNICS  2^ 

It  is  of  vital  importance  that  the  instructor  know  that  each 
student  is  thoroughly  grounded  in  the  work  he  has  taken.  This 
can  be  ascertained  by  frequent  special  tests,  and  no  student  should 
take  up  any  new  work  until  he  can  show  that  he  has  mastered  the 
old.  A  half  day  devoted  occasionally  to  a  written  examination 
and  followed  by  a  searching  quiz  would  be  of  great  value  to  student 
and  teacher.  This  does  not  apply  to  bookkeeping  alone,  but  also 
with  almost  equal  force  to  arithmetic,  commercial  law,  and  busi- 
ness practice  and  technics. 

BUSINESS  PRACTICE  AND  TECHNICS 

The  test  presupposes  a  'practical  general  knowledge  of  the 
manner  of  conducting  business  and  some  familiarity  with  the 
methods  and  practice  that  should  prevail  in  every  well  regu- 
lated business  office.  The  student  will  buy  and  sell  merchan- 
dise for  cash,  on  account  and  in  exchange  for  time  paper. 
He  will  operate  as  an  independent  merchant,  as  a  member 
of  a  firm  and  eventually  as  the  head  of  a  large  wholesale 
establishment.  In  the  course  of  his  practice  career  he  will  deal 
with  other  students,  alone  and  as  members  of  firms,  and  with 
one  or  more  wholesale  establishments.  He  will  have  ample  capital 
to  begin  with  and  will  open  an  account  as  a  customer  of  the  bank, 
through  which  he  will  get  all  necessary  knowledge  of  banking  from 
the  customer's  point  of  view.  He  must  have  a  watchful  eye  on 
his  business,  must  sustain  his  credit  by  paying  his  bills  when  due, 
must  look  carefully  after  his  collections,  his  commercial  paper  and 
his  price  list. 

In  order  to  do  business  it  is  necessary  for  the  student  to  know 
something  of  the  usual  rules  and  practice  in  buying  and  selling 
breadstuffs,  and  other  farm  products;  meat  products;  cotton,  wool, 
hides  and  other  raw  materials;  lumber,  iron  and  other  building 
materials;  mineral  products  sold  on  a  commercial  scale;  fruits  and 
groceries;  dry  goods  and  all  ordinary  commodities;  stocks  and 
bonds.  He  should  have  some  general  knowledge  of  the  prevalent 
customs  in  the  business  of  transportation  on  the  high  seas,  the 
great  lakes  and  navigable  rivers  and  by  canal  or  railway;  in  the 
business  of  manufacturing  and  insurance;  and  should  also  know 
something  of  the  more  important  rules  and  customs  governing 
transactions  on  the  stock  exchange,  the  produce  exchange  and 
similar  centers  of  trade.  This  knowledge  is  not  expected  to  be  in 
any  sense  technical,  but  broadly  general.  The  student  should  be 
able  to  keep  the  accounts  of  an  ordinary  business  and  to  make 
out  all  papers  in  the  regular  order  of  such  business. 


278  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Suggestions.  In  the  business  practice  department  the  transac- 
tions should  be,  so  far  as  circumstances  will  permit,  counterparts 
of  those  occurring  in  actual  business,  and  they  should  be  con 
ducted  with  the  earnestness  and  exactness  which  characterize  the 
model  man  of  business.  With  this  spirit  prevailing,  it  will  be  the 
pride  of  every  student  to  carry  out  with  precision  the  most  minute 
rules  of  business  custom  and  etiquette. 

This  work  is  closely  correlated  with  bookkeeping,  arithmetic  and 
commercial  law,  and  gives  rise  in  great  part  to  the  work  in  those 
branches  as  well  as  to  much  valuable  practice  in  the  use  of  English 
and  in  penmanship.  Every  student  in  the  department  should 
be  required  to  perform  independently  and  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  and  models  furnished  him  the  whole  series  of  connected 
operations  arising  out  of  his  commercial  dealing.  The  books, 
stationery  and  appliances  used  in  the  course  should  be  modern,  of 
good  material  and  of  the  most  approved  form  used  in  business 
houses.  Strict  accuracy  should  in  all  cases  be  demanded.  It  is 
assumed  that  the  student  who  has  learned  to  keep  accurately  a 
set  of  books  in  one  reasonably  complicated  business  will  readily 
adapt  himself  to  the  peculiarities  of  any  other  line  of  business 
which  he  may  be  required  to  take  up.  Sufficient  time  should  be 
allowed  the  student  in  each  office  or  subdivision  to  gain  a  knowl- 
edge of  details. 

Letters  and  business  papers  should  be  carefully  filed  by  modern 
methods  for  convenient  reference,  and  all  original  documents 
should  be  securely  guarded.  Special  instruction  should  be  given 
along  these  lines,  which  also  include  modern  methods  of  copying 
and  duplicating.  The  student  should  also  be  brought  occasion- 
ally face  to  face  with  emergencies  that  require  prompt  action. 

In  this  department  the  student  will  gain  familiarity  with  the 
use  of  invoices,  accounts  sales,  accounts  current,  bills,  receipts  and 
every  kind  of  formal  business  statement;  of  express  receipts,  rail- 
way receipts  and  more  formal  bills  of  lading,  of  warehouse  receipts, 
drafts,  checks,  promissory  notes  and  all  ordinary  forms  of  business 
paper.  He  should  also  acquire  ability  to  write  a  good  business 
letter,  and  he  should  be  taught  to  combine  clearness  with  brevity. 
Every  letter  or  other  document  written  here  should  be  scrutinized 
by  the  teacher,  and  corrections  suggested  when  necessary.  Stu- 
dents whose  handwriting  is  deficient  in  legibility  or  neatness 
should  receive  such  "individual  instruction  as  may  be  necessary, 
and  should  be  required  to  devote  extra  time  to  practice  till  the 
deficiency Jis  overcome,  A  bad  writer  can  not  be  a  successful 
bookkeeper. 


COMMERCIAL    LAW  279 

BUSINESS  ARITHMETIC 

This  test  requires  a  high  degree  of  skill  and  absolute  accuracy 
in  business  computations,  such  as  weights,  measures  and 
prices  in  various  kinds  of  business  (including  a  practical 
knowledge  of  the  metric  system).  Candidates  should  be  able  to 
solve  any  problem  in  ordinary  business,  and  have  such  familiarity 
with  principles  as  will  enable  them  to  make  use  of  the  simplest  and 
most  certain.  They  must  have  a  good  working  knowledge  of 
denominate  numbers,  aliquot  parts,  percentage  in  its  numerous 
applications,  such  as  trade  discounts,  commission  and  brokerage, 
profit  and  loss,  interest,  present  worth,  bank  discount  and  partial 
payments.  They  should  be  acquainted  with  the  principles  of 
ratio  and  proportion  and  be  able  to  apply  them  in  the  solution  of 
problems.  They  should  be  able  to  solve  problems  in  insurance, 
exchange,  equation  of  accounts,  partnership  settlements,  opera- 
tions of  incorporated  companies,  stocks  and  bonds,  taxes,  duties, 
banking,  storage  and  general  average. 

Suggestions.  In  the  Regents  examinations  in  business  arith- 
metic no  credit  will  be  given  to  any  answer  that  is  erroneous  as  to 
computation.  If  the  candidate  proceeds  on  a  wrong  principle 
(as  for  example,  computing  interest  on  a  basis  of  360  days  to  the 
year  when  required  to  compute  on  the  basis  of  365  days;  or  making 
a  mistake  in  some  table  of  denominate  numbers)  yet  makes  no 
error  in  computation,  he  will  be  allowed  half  credit  on  his  answer. 

The  justification  for  this  requirement  is  that  inaccurate  com- 
putation is  of  no  value  in  the  countingroom  or  elsewhere. 

Rapid  calculation  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication, 
cancelation,  interest  and  discount  should  be  a  daily  exercise. 

Work  in  bill  making,  partnership  settlements  and  the  like  should 
appear  as  far  as  possible  in  the  form  of  statements,  on  paper  ruled 
by  the  student.  Such  work  tends  to  increase  largely  the  student's 
efficiency  in  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  accounts. 

The  students  should  not  be  allowed  to  tie  themselves  down  to 
rules.  Select  business  problems  and  let  them  be  solved  by  business 
methods,  founded  on  analysis  and  reason.  The  arithmetic  of 
business  should  be  emphatically  the  arithmetic  of  common  sense. 

Frequent  tests  should  be  given. 

COMMERCIAL  LAW 

The  test  in  commercial  law  demands  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
those  phases  of  the  law  that  are  of  constant  application  in  business 
life,   including  the  drawing  of  contracts  and  other  business  docu- 


280  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

ments.  Candidates  should  have  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  laws 
relating  to  negotiable  paper  and  other  contracts  in  common  use. 
They  should  have  a  fair  practical  knowledge  of  the  laws  relating 
to  interest  and  usury,  sales  of  personal  property,  partnership, 
agency,  liens,  bailment,  warranty,  guaranty,  insurance,  attachment, 
garnishment,  corporations,  common  carriers,  stoppage  in  transit, 
real  estate,  banking,  taxes  and  duties.  Candidates  should  be 
familiar  with  the  provisions  of  the  statute  of  limitations  and  with 
the  4th  and  17th  sections  of  the  statute  of  frauds  and  New  York 
legislation  thereon.  They  should  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
interstate  commerce  law  and  the  national  bankruptcy  law  and  be 
able  to  fill  out  or  draw  up  in  concise  legal  form  any  contract  or 
agreement,  check,  note,  bill  of  exchange,  bill  of  sale,  power  of  at- 
torney, bill  of  lading,  deed,  mortgage,  lease,  notice  of  protest,  or 
other  document  relating  to  the  foregoing  subjects. 

Suggestions.  Ignorance  of  the  law  excuses  no  one.  The  pur- 
pose of  this  course  is  to  protect  the  student  from  the  anxieties 
and  losses  of  lawsuits,  by  acquainting  him  with  some  of  the  under- 
lying principles  of  the  law,  and  with  the  drawing  of  contracts  and 
other  business  papers  in  simplest  legal  form  and  with  the  least 
verbiage  consistent  with  clearness.  It  is  not  expected  that  the 
student  will  draw  any  but  the  simplest  papers  from  memory;  but 
knowing  all  the  particulars  of  a  contract  he  should  be  able  to  draw 
it  concisely  and  legally.  He  should  not  be  required  to  write  from 
memory  any  of  the  complicated  printed  forms,  but  simply  to  fill 
in  what  needed  to  be  written. 

The  teacher  of  commercial  law  need  not  be  a  practitioner  in  the 
courts.  He  need  not  even  be  a  lawyer,  but  he  should  be  one  who 
knows  the  law.  He  may  lecture  on  the  law,  but  he  should  not 
do  too  much  of  it.  The  class  should  have  a  chance  to  do  much  of 
the  talking,  subject  to  correction  when  necessary.  The  chief 
object  is  to  fix  permanently  in  the  minds  of  students  the  un deviat- 
ing principles  of  the  law  and  this  can  usually  be  done  most  effect- 
ively by  an  analysis  of  cases,  real  or  hypothetical.  Judicious  dis- 
cussion by  the  class,  within  proper  limits,  should  always  be  allowed 
when  time  permits.  Some  reliable  textbook  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  the  students  for  careful  study. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  teacher  of  bookkeeping  and  business 
practice  have  a  working  knowledge  of  commercial  law,  as  correla- 
tion of  these  studies  will  be  of  great  value.  When  the  class  in  book- 
keeping is  called  to  draw  its  first  check,  promissory  note  or  draft, 
it  should  be  instructed  in  the  provisions  of  law  relating  to  negoti- 


HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE  28 1 

able  paper:  the  duties  of  the  drawer  or  maker  for  the  protection 
of  himself  and  others  into  whose  hands  the  paper  may  rightfully 
come;  the  liability  incurred  by  the  indorser  and  how  it  may  be 
limited  or  otherwise  modified;  the  duties  and  obligations  of  the 
acceptor;  the  precautions  to  be  exercised  on  the  part  of  the  payee 
and  the  payer.1  All  of  these  will  be  subjects  of  live  interest  to  the 
student  who  has  just  drawn  his  first  promissory  note  or  check. 
When  as  a  young  merchant  in  business  practice  he  signs  a  lease 
for  his  place  of  business,  the  important  law  points  bearing  on 
leasehold  should  be  made  clear  to  him,  and  so  also  of  the  fire  insur- 
ance policy  on  his  goods.  If  possible,  the  document  or  matter 
under  discussion  should  be  before  the  class,  either  written  on  the 
blackboard  or  in  print  or  writing  in  the  hands  of  every  member; 
and  the  subject  should  not  be  dropped  until  every  student  is  able 
to  draw  the  document,  and  state  the  important  points  of  law  which 
bear  on  it.  Members  of  the  class  should  be  allowed  all  the  latitude 
for  discussion  consistent  with  good  discipline  and  necessary  time 
limits  and  every  member  should  be  encouraged  to  participate. 
Such  discussion  promotes  confidence  and  clearness  in  expression 
of  ideas. 

HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE 

History  should  connect  the  present  with  the  past.  As  commer- 
cial geography  portrays  the  commerce  of  today,  so  the  history  of 
commerce  should  depict  in  broad  lines  the  commerce  of  past  ages. 
In  preparation  for  the  test  the  candidate  should  acquire  a  general 
knowledge  as  to  the  origin  and  early  development  of  commerce, 
should  be  able  to  trace  its  influence  on  the  world's  civilization  and 
should  become  acquainted  in  a  broad,  general  way  with  the  great 
discoveries,  public  works,  inventions,  legislative  enactments  and 
other  important  influences  by  which  the  progress  of  commerce  has 
been  affected.  A  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  com- 
mercial history  of  our  own  country  will  be  required. 

The  student  should  reach  a  clear  understanding  of  the  begin- 
nings of  commerce  as  the  inevitable  outcome  of  man's  needs  and 
desires.  In  tracing  its  earlier  history  he  should  note  the  more 
striking  incidents  with  which  its  development  has  been  accom- 
panied. This  naturally  demands  some  knowledge  of  the  peoples 
and  of  the  countries  or  cities  that  in  earlier  times  have  been  noted 
for    commercial     enterprise:    Egyptians,     Hebrews,     Ishmaelites 

'The  negotiable  instruments  law,  recently  passed  by  New  York  and  some  other  states, 
•hould  be  consulted  as  to  commercial  paper. 


282  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

(Arabs),  Phenicians,  Greeks;  Carthage,  Rome,  Palmyra,  Massalia 
(Marseilles),  Athens,  Corinth,  Magna  Grecia^  Byzantium;  slavery 
in  Greece. 

Phenicia:  commercial  policy;  commanding  position;  inland, 
river  and  maritime  trade;  carrier  for  all  employers;  inland  trade 
with  Hebrews  and  Egyptians ;  ship  builders  and  navigators ;  trade 
on  the  high  seas;  close  relations  with  Solomon;  Sidon  and  Tyre; 
breadstuffs  imported;  Carthage;  other  colonies;  early  currency. 

Egypt:  agriculture  and  manufactures;  importers  of  hides,  furs, 
fine  woods,  etc.,  and  of  slaves;  the  Nile  river. 

Greece:  a  seafaring  people;  taught  by  the  Phenicians;  fruits, 
breadstuffs  and  raw  materials;  extensive  colonization;  flourishing 
trade  between  colonies  and  mother  cities;  slavery.  Athens  in  the 
time  of  Pericles.  Commercial  and  economic  effects  of  the  con- 
quests of  Alexander.  Importance  of  Rhodes;  fairs  and  markets 
in  Greece. 

Roman  commerce  and  industries:  Romans  not  a  commercial 
people;  imports  of  Rome;  exports;  balance  of  trade,  how  adjusted; 
trade  gilds;  decline  in  agriculture;  slavery;  encouragement  of  in- 
dolence; Roman  roads  and  posts;  commercial  tribunals;  Roman 
currency;  decay  and  fall  of  Rome. 

Five  centuries  of  uncertainty  and  unrest:  Theodocian  code; 
ecclesiastical  law. 

The  Eastern  Empire:  Justinian  (A.  D.  527-65);  conquests  in 
Italy,  Africa  and  Spain;  Amalfi;  Pisa;  silk  culture  in  the  west. 

Mohammedan  empire  (622-732):  marvelous  growth;  trade  and 
manufactures;  character  of  workmanship;  splendid  cities;  Arab 
civilization  in  Spain;  permanent  contributions  to  the  world's 
industries. 

Karl  the  Great  (771-814):  education,  agriculture  and  commerce 
and  the  keeping  of  accounts;  a  semimilitary  system;  relations  with 
distant  rulers ;  stimulates  the  growth  of  towns ;  a  commercial  treaty 
with  the  king  of  Mercia;  protection  to  traders  in  the  realm  of  Karl. 

Feudalism:  its  essential  feature;  causes  of  its  institution  and 
growth;  its  primary  effects  on  the  classes  of  persons  involved; 
how  it  affected  the  growth  of  towns;  two  contrary  influences  on 
trade. 

Merchant  gilds  and  craft  gilds:  reasons  for  their  founding; 
object  of  the  merchant  gilds;  of  the  craft  gilds;  influence  of  mer- 
chant gilds  in  the  towns;  how  members  of  craft  gilds  became! 
freemen. 


HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE  283 

The  crusades:  general  influence  on  trade;  how  they  affected  the 
commerce  of  the  Italian  city  republics;  special  commercial  conces- 
sions; how  England  was  benefited.  The  career  of  Venice;  her 
consular  system.  Florence  as  a  financial  center  and  manufactur- 
ing city ;  chief  causes  of  the  decline  of  Italian  cities. 

Leagues  against  pirates  and  robbers.  The  Hanseatic  League 
{circa  1 1 69):  object;  Hamburg  and  Liibeck;  rapid  growth  of  the 
league;  growth  in  power  and  increase  in  commerce;  monopoly; 
factories  (agencies);  the  "London  Steelyard;"  the  factories  at 
Novgorod  and  Bruges;  eminent  services  of  the  league. 

Fairs  and  markets:  their  function  in  commerce;  surviving  fairs. 

Early  English  commerce:  trade  in  tin  with  the  Phenicians;  a 
trade  with  Gaul  in  other  products.  King  Alfred  founds  a  navy. 
Wool  the  most  important  commodity  through  the  Middle  Ages: 
exported;  manufactured;  the  main  source  of  revenue.  Influence 
of  foreign  immigration  on  the  woolen  industry.  The  Jews  in 
England;  Black  Death  (1348-50)  carries  off  one  third  to  one  half 
of  the  population;  slow  but  steady  breaking  up  of  manorial  system. 

The  Netherlands  in  the  Middle  Ages:  Ghent;  Antwerp. 

German  expansion:  colonization. 

The  travels  of  Marco  Polo. 

Medieval  currency,  banking  and  credit;  general  influence  of 
medieval  commerce  on  the  development  of  civilization. 

Invention  of  gunpowder,  the  mariner's  compass,  the  astrolabe 
and  the  art  of  printing;  a  new  route  to  India;  discovery  of 
America;  circumnavigation  of  the  earth;  economic  effects  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation;  the  Peasants  War. 

Commerce  under  the  Tudors.  Henry  7  builds  ships  and 
extends  commerce.  Wool  and  other  exports  carried  in  English 
ships  to  most  of  the  maritime  countries  of  Europe;  commercial 
treaties.  Henry  8.  Chief  economic  event;  influence  on  agri- 
culture; effects  on  the  woolen  industry ;  advance  in  prices. 

The  Portuguese  establishment  in  India,  how  won  and  how  lost. 
Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic;  commercial  expansion;  leading 
bankers;  the  Dutch  in  America;  the  French  and  English  in  India. 

Spanish  ascendancy  in  the  west.  Opportunity  for  commercial 
supremacy;  leading  states  united  by  marriage;  victory  over  the 
Moors  by  capture  of  Granada;  monopoly  of  a  new  world;  greatest 
world  power ;  natives  enslaved  to  work  in  mines ;  Spanish  treachery ; 
beginning  of  African  slave  trade  in  the  New  World ;  colonial  policy 
and  its  results. 


284  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Early  navigation  laws  of  England  (1381-1600) ;  England  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth;  slave  trade;  opening  of  trade  with  Moscow; 
grants  by  James  1  of  lands  in  America  (1606);  early  shipbuilding 
industry  in  American  colonies;  first  restriction  of  American  colo- 
nial commerce  (1619) ;  the  European  system  of  colonization ;  coloni- 
zation of  America;  Charles  1  attempts  a  monopoly  of  American 
commerce  (1628-39);  the  sole  market  theory;  slavery  in  Europe 
and  America;  export  and  import  trade  of  the  American  colonies 
confined  to  British  or  colonial  ships  (1650);  enactment  that  the 
"enumerated  articles"  should  not  be  exported  direct  to  foreign 
countries  without  being  first  brought  to  England  and  reshipped  by 
English  merchants  (1660);  smuggling  by  colonists ;  no  foreign  com- 
modity allowed  to  be  sent  to  the  colonies  unless  actually  laden  at 
an  English  port  and  carried  by  an  English  ship  (1663);  colonists 
forbidden  to  carry  on  manufacturing;  the  commercial  policy  of 
Colbert  (1664);  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713). 

The  Seven  Years  War  (known  in  America  as  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  1756-63).  A  struggle  for  a  continent;  Pitt's  supreme  effort 
in  the  interest  of  colonial,  maritime  and  commercial  supremacy 
for  the  English  people. 

Economic  causes  of  the  American  revolution.  Woolen  manufac- 
tures forbidden  (17 19);  iron  manufactures  forbidden  (1750);  hats 
not  allowed  to  be  sent  from  one  colony  to  another ;  colonies  encour- 
aged to  produce  raw  materials  for  English  manufacturers;  con- 
traband trade  with  French  and  Spanish  settlements;  writs  of 
assistance;  stamp  tax  (1765);  Pitt's  protest  against  taxation  with- 
out representation;  colonists  form  associations  for  buying  only 
their  own  manufactures;  England  imposes  duties  on  tea,  glass, 
paints  and  pasteboard  (1767);  "Boston  tea  party"  (1773);  port  of 
Boston  closed  and  charter  of  Massachusetts  annulled;  all  trade  with 
the  colonies  forbidden  (1775);  Continental  Congress;  articles  of 
confederation;  France  helps  the  colonies  and  forms  an  alliance 
with  them ;  Spain  joins  France  against  England.  Coalition  against 
the  "right  of  search." 

Commerce  and  industries  during  the  Revolution:  free  trade; 
all  goods  accepted  except  English;  establishment  of  iron  manu- 
factures by  the  Congress;  wool  manufactures;  reciprocity  with 
France;  the  Continental  Congress  declares  for  free  trade  (1778); 
equipment  for  the  Continental  army;  a  factory  started 
(1790)  ;  the  cotton  gin;  a  flood  of  English  goods  follows  the  treaty 
of  peace ;  English  goods  cheaper  in  New  York  than  in  London ; 
paper  money;  manufacturing  establishments  closed;  workmen 
beggared. 


HISTORY  OF  COMMERCE  285 

Local  protection.  Each  state  reserves  the  right  to  regulate  its 
own  commerce ;  intolerable  clashing  of  state  tariffs  leads  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  federal  Constitution ;  a  single  system  of  commercial 
policy  adopted;  tariff  of  1789;  import  duties  5  to  10%;  30  to  50% 
on  tonnage  of  foreign  vessels. 

Beginning  of  modern  cotton  manufacture  in  the  United  States 
(1790);  shipbuilding;  causes  of  the  backwardness  of  manufactures; 
first  application  of  steam  in  the  United  States  (1800) ;  conditions  of 
agriculture,  commerce  and  manufactures  (1808);  status  of  Ameri- 
can shipping  (1795) ;  increase  in  rate  of  duties  (1 789-1808) ;  tariffs 
to  1807  founded  on  fiscal  needs;  embargo  act  (1807);  noninter- 
course  act;  effects  of  these  acts  on  commerce,  on  American  shipping 
and  on  manufactures. 

War  of  181 2,  causes,  effects;  protective  tariff  (18 16),  why 
imposed;  effects.     The  "reciprocal  liberty  of  commerce"  act  (18 15). 

The  English  industrial  revolution ;  five  great  inventions  and  their 
radical  influence  on  the  industries  and  commerce  of  England; 
temporary  suffering  of  working  classes  and  small  farmers;  the 
mining  industries. 

The  French  Revolution  and  continental  war.  Napoleon's 
continental  system;  broken  by  Russia.  Decay  of  the  Nether- 
lands; revival  of  Holland;  Belgian  development;  Switzerland; 
Russia's  growth,  commercial  policy,  railways;  revival  of  Italian 
trade ;  commercial  decay  of  Spain.     A  leaning  toward  protection. 

Transportation  in  the  United  States.  Stage  coach,  turnpike, 
saddle  horse  and  ox  team;  river  navigation;  steamboats  (1807); 
flatboats  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi;  great  reduction  in  freight 
rates;  Cumberland  road;  many  canals  projected;  the  Erie  canal; 
navigation  on  the  great  lakes;  first  railroad  begun  (1828);  first 
railroad  in  New  York  (about  1832)  ;  total  railway  mileage  in  1835, 
760;  in  1850,  8571  miles.  The  Savannah,  an  American  sailing 
vessel  having  auxiliary  steam  power,  crosses  the  Atlantic;  first 
regular  line  of  steamers  between  United  States  and  Europe  (1838). 

Morse  telegraph,  invented  1835,  fairly  established  in  the  early 
"forties";  first  and  second  ocean  telegraph  cable  (1858-66);  com- 
mercial treaties ;  reciprocity  treaties. 

England  adopts  free  trade  and  repeals  the  corn  laws;  extraor- 
dinary commercial  and  industrial  progress;  colonial  trade;  in- 
fluence in  Africa;  discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  Australia 
(1848-49);  the  Zollverein  in  Germany.     Pan-American  congress. 


286  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Population  of  the  United  States  increased  by  immigration; 
causes  and  inducements.  Increased  agricultural  production  and 
increased  demand  for  goods;  financial  crises  and  panics,  causes  and 
results. 

The  American  Civil  War,  economic  causes  and  results;  effects 
on  other  countries;  cost,  in  money,  to  United  States. 

The  Suez  canal:  its  importance;  its  chief  beneficiaries.  The 
American  Isthmian  canal.     Other  important  canals. 

Transcontinental  railways;  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion. 

The  Franco-Prussian  War  and  its  results.  Trade  and  industry 
of  Germany  and  France  since  the  war. 

Detached  territory  and  colonies  of  the  United  States. 

The  fisheries  of  the  United  States,  value  of  the  catch;  approxi- 
mate capital  invested  in  manufacturing  industries. 

The  renaissance  of  the  Southern  States;  trade  of  the  United 
States  with  foreign  nations  now  includes  exports  of  American 
silks,  woolens  and  cottons  to  Europe;  domestic  commerce  of  the 
United  States;  American  shipping;  commercial  and  economic 
effects  of  Spanish-American  War. 

Prevailing  trade  conditions  and  policies  of  European  and  other 
foreign  countries. 

Suggestions.  The  history  of  commerce  naturally  links  itself 
with  commercial  geography  and  the  same  general  methods  are 
applicable  to  both  studies.  Maps  should  be  studied  to  identify 
localities  and  outline  maps  should  be  used  as  tests.  It  is  recom- 
mended for  both  studies  that  topics  be  assigned  at  least  once  a 
week  to  individual  members  of  the  class,  for  investigation  and  writ- 
ten report  to  the  class.  The  reports  should  be  discussed  in  class 
and  each  member  allowed  to  question  the  author  on  any  matter 
not  fully  understood.  The  teacher  should  observe  the  discussion 
and  see  that  no  erroneous  conclusions  are  reached.1 

COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  test  in  commercial  geography  presupposes  some  general 
knowledge  of  mathematical,  physical  and  political  geography. 
Candidates  should  be  able  to  give  in  a  general  way  the  location 
and  physical  features,  approximate  size  and  population,  form  of 
government  and  prevailing  language  of  the  important  commercial 

JFor  many  valuable  ideas  on  the  study  of  history,  see  article,  "  History,"  by  Dr 
C.  A.  Herrick,  Director  School  of  Commerce,  Philadelphia  Central  High  School,  in  Com- 
mercial Education  in  High  Schools,  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  College  Department, 
bulletin  23,  June  1904,  20c. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY  287 

countries  of  the  world,  and  should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  relative 
commercial  activities  of  those  countries  and  of  the  leading  products 
(specially  exports  and  imports),  routes  of  travel  and  transporta- 
tion, chief  seaports  and  ocean  or  other  routes  by  which  these  are 
connected  with  other  trading  ports  of  the  world. 

Physical  features.  Land.  Continents;  islands,  continental  and 
oceanic;  coast  forms,  cape,  promontory,  peninsula,  isthmus; 
relief  forms,  mountains  and  mountain  systems,  plain,  plateau, 
basin,  desert. 

Water.  Ocean,  sea,  gulf  or  bay,  strait,  sound,  lake,  river;  cir- 
culation, including  waves,  tides,  ocean  currents. 

Atmosphere.  Constant  winds,  including  trade  winds,  antitrade 
winds,  monsoons.  Inconstant  winds,  including  land  and  sea 
breezes,  cyclone  or  tornado,  water  spout.  Moisture:  grains  to 
cubic  foot  of  air;  dew  point;  average  annual  rainfall. 

Climate.  As  determined  by  location,  altitude,  winds,  ocean 
currents,  high  mountain  ranges. 

Weather    bureau.     Predictions  and  signals. 

Political.  The  political  divisions  of  each  continent  or  grand 
division,  their  capitals,  forms  of  government,  population  and 
language. 

Commercial.  A  study  of  countries  and  peoples  as  to  commercial 
importance  and  efficiency,  chief  industries,  trade  with  other  coun- 
tries (specially  the  United  States),  leading  commodities,  value  of 
exports  and  imports,  internal  communications,  including  routes 
of  travel  and  transportation,  chief  commercial  cities  and  seaports 
and  the  ocean  routes  and  ship  canals  by  which  they  are  connected 
with  the  trading  ports  of  the  world.  A  fair  knowledge  of  these 
matters  and  of  the  general  character  of  the  people  will  be  required 
in  the  case  of  all  countries  studied. 

The  State  of  New  York.  Physical  features  of  the  region  in  which 
the  candidate  resides;  climate  and  soil;  description  of  a  familiar 
industry;  industries  peculiar  to  the  State;  leading  industries; 
special  industries  in  certain  cities;  industries  that  are  declining; 
new  industries;  important  manufactures;  early  methods  of  travel 
and  carriage;  rivers,  canals  and  railways;  pipe  lines;  the  open  door 
to  the  great  West. 

United  States.  Richness  and  variety  of  raw  materials;  exports; 
imports;  recent  exports  of  silks  and  woolens  to  France,  hosiery  to 
Germany,  cottons  to  Manchester  and  tin  plates  and  bars  to  Wales. 
England  is  importing  Lake  Superior  iron. 


288  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Manufactures.  New  York  State.  Clothing;  iron  products; 
leather  and  its  products;  refined  sugar,  chemicals,  steam  engines 
and  heavy  machinery,  agricultural  machinery  and  implements, 
sewing  machines,  bicycles,  wagons,  typewriters,  and  other  fine 
machinery  and  tools,  printing  presses  and  type,  paper  and  books, 
electric  machinery  and  supplies,  pianos,  shipbuilding,  soap  and 
candles,  clay  products,  tin  and  copper  goods,  malt  liquors,  tobacco 
and  cigars,  furniture,  knit  goods,  hats  and  caps,  gloves. 

Pennsylvania.  Importance  in  iron  and  steel  working,  woolen 
and  carpet  industries. 

Massachusetts.  Leading  in  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  boots  and 
shoes. 

Leading  manufactures  in  other  states.  Development  of  manu- 
facturing in  the  Southern  States. 

Internal  communications.  Mississippi  river  system,  great  lakes, 
Erie  canal,  Hudson  river,  Sault  Sainte  Marie  canal,  Welland  canal, 
St  Lawrence  river;  transcontinental  railway  systems  and  principal 
connections ;  railway  lines  running  north  and  south ;  trunk  railways 
of  New  England;  trunk  railways  in  New  York;  postal  and  tele- 
graph facilities;  express  companies. 

Seaport  cities  and  towns.  The  six  leading  seaport  cities,  their 
position,  population  and  influence;  five  cities  on  the  New  England 
coast,  one  each  on  the  coast  of  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Florida,  Alabama  and  Texas,  and  four  on  the  Pacific  coast,  with 
the  trade  for  which  each  is  noted;  seven  important  city  ports  on 
the  great  lakes,  10  river  ports  of  the  Mississippi  system;  10  inland 
manufacturing  or  commercial  cities  of  New  York;  10  inland  manu- 
facturing cities  or  towns  of  New  England,  three  of  New  Jersey, 
five  of  Pennsylvania,  one  of  Delaware  and  one  each  of  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Tennessee,  Indiana,  Michigan 
and  Wisconsin;  six  important  mining  cities  and  towns  in  the 
United  States;  the  largest  cattle  market  town;  the  chief  coal  oil 
town;  four  noted  inland  cities  and  towns  near  the  pacific  coast. 

Detached  territory.     Alaska.     Furs,  fisheries,  forests,  gold. 

Hawaii.  Leading  product,  chief  city,  character  of  people, 
ocean  communications. 

Puerto  Rico.  Two  leading  products,  chief  seaport,  character 
of  people. 

Philippine  Islands.  Commercial  importance;  hemp,  sugar, 
tobacco,  coffee,  rice;  chief  port;  character  of  people  and  progress 
of  civilization;  ocean  communication. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY  289 

Ocean  communications.  Steamer  routes:  New  York  to  Queens- 
town  and  Liverpool;  New  York  to  Hamburg;  New  York  to  South- 
ampton and  London;  New  York  to  the  Mediterranean;  New  York 
to  Cape  Town  and  Cape  Town  to  Adelaide,  etc.;  New  York  coast- 
wise around  Cape  Horn  to  San  Francisco;  New  Orleans  to  Liver- 
pool; New  York  to  the  Bermudas;  New  York  to  Havana;  San  Fran- 
cisco to  Yokohama;  San  Francisco  to  Honolulu;  Honolulu  to 
Feejee  Islands  and  Auckland.  The  Suez  canal;  other  ship  canals. 
Ocean  cables.     Postal  facilities. 

Other  countries  hereinafter  mentioned  should  be  studied  along 
similar  lines  to  those  laid  down  for  the  United  States,  but  with  less 
detail  and  in  what  is  practically  the  order  of  the  importance  of  their 
trade  with  the  United  States. 

Great  Britain  and  her  colonies 

Commercial  importance.  Values  of  exports  and  imports,  a 
financial  center,  distributor  of  the  world's  products,  merchant 
marine,  trade  with  the  United  States,  free  trade. 

England  and  Wales;  Scotland;  Canada  and  Newfoundland; 
Ireland;  British  India,  Ceylon,  Hong  Kong,  The  Straits  Settlements 
and  Aden,  Australian  colonies,  British  West  Indies  (Bahamas, 
Windward  group,  Trinidad,  Bermudas,  Jamaica  and  Turks  island). 
Balize  (British  Honduras).  British  South  American  colonies 
(British  Guiana).  British  possessions  or  dependencies  in  Africa 
(Cape  Colony,  Mauritius,  Sierra  Leone,  Lower  Egypt,  Rhodesia. 

Other  countries 

German  Empire,  France,  Brazil,  Belgium,  Spain  and  Portugal, 
Italy.  Holland  (the  Netherlands)  and  colonial  possessions:  Dutch 
East  Indies,  including  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes,  Moluccas, 
western  half  of  New  Guinea.  Mexico,  Japan,  China,  Russia  and 
Siberia,  Switzerland,  Austria-Hungary,  Turkey  (including  the  Le- 
vant), Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark,  Greece,  Central  American 
states,  Venezuela,  Argentina,  Colombia,  Chile,  Uruguay,  Ecuador, 
Peru,  Bolivia,  Hayti  and  San  Domingo. 

While  in  the  foregoing  list  of  countries,  colonies  and  dependen- 
cies other  than  our  own,  only  the  names  have  been  mentioned,  it  is 
expected  that  each  of  these  will  be  given  as  much  study  as  time  will 
permit. 

Suggestions.  In  the  study  of  commercial  geography  it  seems 
desirable  to  proceed  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  or  faintly 


29O  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

apprehended — from  the  home  of  the  student  and  its  environment, 
in  widening  circles,  till  the  study  embraces  first  the  state,  then  the 
Union  and  finally  the  commercial  world. 

As  an  introduction  to  this  study  it  would  be  helpful  to  the  student 
to  have  an  intimate  knowledge  of  some  of  the  more  common  raw 
materials  of  commerce  and  to  be  able  to  trace  them  through  the 
various  processes  of  preparation  to  the  finished  product.  Some  of 
the  commercial  teachers  in  the  high  schools  of  our  State  have  already 
begun  to  make  collections  of  working  specimens  to  be  handled  by 
the  students  and  have  also  begun  to  collect  specimens  and  products 
for  permanent  commercial  museums.  The  principal  of  one  of  the 
largest  commercial  schools  in  the  State  writes:  "The  subject  of  raw 
materials  and  commercial  products  is  the  most  interesting  and 
should  be  the  most  important  part  of  commercial  geography  .  .  . 
I  find  that  our  pupils  get  more  information  from  their 
trips  to  the  docks  and  to  the  factories  and  from  their 
study  of  commercial  products  (which  they  have  already 
collected  in  such  abundance  as  to  stock  the  museum  in  our 
new  building)  than  they  do  from  the  textbook  or  from  their  col- 
lateral reading;  so  that  the  study  of  raw  materials  and  commer- 
cial products  is  the  center  of  our  study  of  commercial  geography." 

An  able  teacher  in  the  English  High  School,  Boston,  says: 
"The  field  of  the  science  is  the  study  of  those  commercial  products 
that  man  needs  for  his  existence,  and  the  various  forms  of  industry 
and  labor  by  which  men  produce  those  commodities  and  earn  their 
living."1 

Maps  will  prove  very  valuable  in  the  study  of  commercial  geogra- 
phy— wall  maps  for  fixing  localities,  followed  by  outline  maps  as 
tests.  As  our  Boston  teacher  has  well  said:  "A  student  who 
can  indicate  on  an  outline  map  the  areas  of  production,  trade  routes, 
etc.,  knows  his  lesson  and  has  the  picture  clear  in  his  mind."  In  this 
connection  lantern  slides  may  be  made  of  great  value.  The 
director  of  the  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum,  says,  in  an  article 
on  "Some  of  the  Equipment  necessary  for  Commercial  Schools"2: 
"Where  the  actual  articles  of  commerce  can  not  be  secured  they  can 
still  be  adequately  presented  by  means  of  the  lantern  slide;  and 
this  has  no  superior,  indeed  no  equal  as  a  means  of  protraying 
methods  of  packing,  of  shipping,  of  transportation  generally  and  of 
docking  and  wharf  facilities  in  the  various  parts  of  the  world." 

1  See  Commercial  Education  in  High  Schools,  p.  55  et  seq.  College  Department  bulletin  23 
,J  See  Commercial  Education  in  High  Schools,  p.101  et  seq. 


BUSINESS  CORRESPONDENCE  2<)I 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge  on  the  value  of  a  good  working  library 
in  connection  with  this  study.  In  it  should  be  found  all  the  books 
on  commercial  geography.  There  are  not  many  of  them  yet,  but 
the  list  is  growing.  Reference  books,  government  publications, 
Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum  publications,  trade  journals 
and  reviews  are  valuable  aids.  See  Dr  Herrick's  list  in  Geography 
of  Commerce,  Trotter,  p.  xx-xxiv. 

Informal  talks  by  business  men  and  manufacturers  would  be  of 
great  interest  to  commercial  students  and  would  impress  them 
strongly  with  the  realities  of  business  life. 

Among  the  more  valuable  recent  publications  of  the  State  De- 
partment at  Washington  are  Commerce  and  Finance  of  the  United 
States,  for  November  1904;  Review  of  the  World's  Commerce,  for 
1901 ;  The  Act  to  Regulate  Commerce,  as  amended  1887-1903  ;  Dingley 
Tariff  Bill;  U.  S.  Bankruptcy  Law  of  1898,  as  amended  1 903 ;  and 
Special  Consular  Reports,  particularly  volume  4  (189 1)  Port  Regu- 
lations in  Foreign  Countries;  volume  10  (1894)  Extension  of  Mar- 
kets for  American  Flour;  volume  12  (1895)  Highways  of  Commerce 
(New  Edition,  1899);  volume  13  (1896-97)  Money  and  Prices  in 
Foreign  Countries;  volume  16  (1899)  Tariffs  of  Foreign  Countries; 
volume  32  (1904)  Foreign  Markets  for  American  Fruits;  volume  30 
(1904)  Emigration  to  the  United  States;  volume  28  (1904)  Com- 
mercial Travelers  in  Foreign  Countries.  A  few  of  these  special 
reports  are  out  of  print  and  can  not  be  furnished  by  the  department. 

BUSINESS  CORRESPONDENCE 

This  test,  which  is  intended  specially  for  students  in  business 
and  stenographers  work,  consists  mainly  of  practical  exercises  in 
English  composition  which  are  to  be  rated  according  to  their 
character,  not  only  as  to  form,  spelling,  punctuation,  capitalization 
and  general  neatness,  but  also  in  the  more  essential  matters  of 
exact  use  of  words,  sentence  structure,  clearness,  logical  sequence 
of  ideas  and  paragraphing.  The  questions  set  will  include  letter 
writing  on  varied  business  topics,  essays  on  various  requirements 
of  technical  business  education,  correction  of  faulty  composition, 
also  drawing  up  or  filling  out,  from  statement  or  memoranda, 
business  documents  such  as  contracts  or  articles  of  agreement,  bills 
of  sale  and  power  of  attorney.  Candidates  may  also  be  required 
to  make  reports  and  abstracts,  to  condense  long  articles  (preserv- 
ing all  important  features),  to  write  and  answer  advertisements 
and  to  compose  short  essays  on  business  topics.  No  questions  in 
technical  grammar  will  be  asked. 


292  NEW    YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Suggestions.  Questions  1-3  are  required  and  must  be  answered 
in  order  to  obtain  credit.  These  refer  to  the  essays  on  require- 
ments of  business  education  and  are  intended  to  show  whether 
or  not  the  candidate  has  the  technical  knowledge  that  would  war- 
rant him  in  taking  this  examination.  These  questions  are  given 
alternatively,  so  that  they  may  be  answered  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  bookkeeper  or  of  the  stenographer  and  typewriter 
The  necessary  data  for  answering  the  other  questions  will  be  found 
in  the  paper  set  for  advanced  bookkeeping.1 

BUSINESS  WRITING 

The  requirements  for  this  test  are  speed,  legibility,  accuracy, 
adaptability  and  neatness.  There  will  be  a  speed  test  of  225 
words  to  be  written  from  unfamiliar  printed  matter  in  15  minutes, 
and  600  figures  to  be  written  in  10  minutes.  The  remainder  of  the 
test  will  consist  of  the  writing  of  business  papers  and  letters  from 
printed  copy.  Credits  for  the  first  six  questions  depend  on  speed, 
legibility,  accuracy  and  neatness;  for  the  others  on  legibility,  ac- 
curacy, adaptability  and  neatness,  without  reference  to  speed.  All 
answers  must  be  written  with  pen  and  ink. 

Suggestions.  While  this  test  is  given  mainly  for  penmanship  it 
has  a  further  educational  value  in  presenting  correct  business 
papers  and  model  letters.  By  "adaptability"  is  meant  the  ability 
to  make  the  writing  accommodate  itself  to  the  space  in  which  it 
is  to  be  written;  and  this  applies  not  only  to  the  size  of  the  letters, 
but  to  the  distinctness  with  which  they  stand  out  for  important 
words  or  phrases.  Business  writing  should  be  so  legible  that  any 
isolated  word  could  be  read  with  ease.  Figures  must  be  neat, 
correct  in  form  and  properly  aligned. 

STENOGRAPHY 

There  are  two  tests  as  follows: 

First  test.  Ability  to  write  accurately  in  shorthand  500  words 
in  10  minutes  and  to  transcribe  the  notes  in  45  minutes,  either  in 
longhand  with  pen  and  ink  or  on  the  typewriter. 

Second  test.  Ability  to  write  accurately  in  shorthand  500  words 
in  five  minutes  and  to  transcribe  the  notes  in  45  minutes,  either 
in  longhand  with  pen  and  ink  or  on  the  typewriter.  Candidates 
for  state  business  credentials  must  obtain  at  least  90%  in  this  test. 

JFor  suggestions  regarding  business  letters,  see  Commercial  Education  in  High  Schools, 
p.  21-23,  College  Department  bulletin  23,  June  1904. 


TYPEWRITING  293 

Papers  will  be  rated  in  proportion  to  the  accuracy  shown  in 
taking  down  the  letters  or  selections,  in  transcribing  the  notes 
and  in  spelling,  use  of  capitals,  punctuation  and  paragraphing. 

Each  test  is  allowed  two  credits,  but  candidates  who  complete 
the  second  test  will  also  receive  credit  for  the  first  test. 

The  examination  must  not  exceed  three  hours.  The  candidates 
may  be  divided  into  groups  for  convenience  in  dictation,  but  the 
time  limits  for  dictation  and  for  transcription  must  be  strictly 
observed. 

The  shorthand  notes  and  the  transcript  are  to  be  promptly 
collected  at  the  end  of  the  period  assigned  for  transcription. 

Suggestions.  The  matter  for  dictation  will  comprise  usually, 
for  the  first  test,  three  business  letters  containing  about  250  words 
and  a  selection  of  about  the  same  length.  The  second  test  will 
include  two  or  three  short  letters  and  a  selection  of  about  300 
words.  As  much  attention  should  be  given  to  the  reading  as  to 
the  writing  of  the  shorthand.  The  student  should  be  required  to 
read  fluently,  intelligently  and  with  correct  expression. 

TYPEWRITING 

The  test  requires  the  candidate  to  write  on  a  typewriter  ordi- 
nary matter  at  the  rate  of  50  words  a  minute  for  three  minutes, 
and  to  copy  unfamiliar  printed  matter  at  the  rate  of  35  words  a 
minute  for  three  minutes.  Candidates  are  further  required  to 
have  a  general  knowledge  of  such  work  as  may  rightfully  devolve 
on  an  amanuensis  in  a  business  office,  such  as  copying  letters  (press, 
roller  copier  or  carbon),  manifolding  (carbon,  mimeograph,  neostyle 
etc.),  filing  letters,  telegrams  and  other  business  papers;  to  make 
out  correctly  such  common  business  papers  as  bills,  receipts,  checks, 
promissory  notes  and  drafts;  but  this  part  of  the  test  is  much  less 
comprehensive  than  that  required  in  connection  with  business 
practice.  Candidates  should  be  able  to  compose  routine  business 
letters,  and  to  correct  examples  of  bad  composition.  They  may 
also  be  required  to  send  in  carbon  duplicates  of  portions  of  their 
examination  work. 

Suggestions.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  matter  for 
copying  or  for  dictation.  No  matter  should  be  used  simply  be- 
cause it  contains  words  that  can  be  printed  on  the  typewriter  or 
taken  in  shorthand.  The  selection  should  have  a  broader  purpose. 
Business  letters  intended  for  dictation  should  be  closely  scrutinized 
and,  when  necessary,  corrected;  and,  so  far  as  possible,  in  all  other 


294  NEW   YORK   STATE    EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

matter  chosen  for  transcription  or  dictation  the  teacher  should 
assure  himself  that  it  is  of  a  character  tending  to  add  to  the  student's 
general  knowledge  and  to  broaden  his  mind  while  it  affords  him 
required  practice. 

It  is  expected  that  copying,  filing,  mimeograph  and  other  work 
required  by  the  syllabus  will  be  actually  done  in  the  school,  and 
described  from  personal  experience. 


GROUP  6 


ACADEMIC  DRAWING  AND  ADVANCED   DRAWING 

T  N  preparing  this  syllabus  in  drawing 
and  outlining  a  general  plan  for  the 
examinations  which  are  to  be  a  test 
of  the  work  done  in  these  subjects, 
an  effort  has  been  made  to  meet 
the  needs  of  those  schools  which 
are  not  provided  with  trained  art 
teachers,  as  well  as  of  those  that 
arc  under  such  supervision. 

The  course  in  drawing  should  be 
continuous  throughout  the  four 
academic  years  and  should  pro- 
vide adequate  instruction  for  228 
periods.  The  first  examination 
should  come  at  the  end  of  the 
second  year  and  the  final  test  in 
advanced  drawing  should  be  made 
at  the  end  of  the  high  school  course. 
"  Drawing  "  will  be  allowed  three 
counts  and  "  advanced  drawing " 
three  counts.  The  work  is  to  be 
done  on  drawing  paper  8  x  10 
inches,  and  all  drawings  are  to  be 
made  suitable  in  size  to  fill  the 
sheet.  Place  but  two  drawings  on 
a  page.  The  credits  allowed  each  answer  depend  on  conception, 
knowledge  of  principles,  and  execution.  Power  of  expression  should 
increase  as  the  work  progresses,  and  at  the  close  of  the  course  a 
high  degree  of  excellence  in  execution  will  be  expected. 

Drawings  may  be  in  pencil,  charcoal,  crayon,  pen  and  ink,  or 
water  colors  as  the  candidates  prefer.  With  the  brush  as  a  medium, 
the  point  may  be  used  at  times  for  outline  drawing.  A  simple 
effect  is  produced  by  the  brush  in  the  silhouette.  A  brush  drawing 
may  be  done  in  flat  tones,  producing  effects  similar  to  those  observed 
in  posters,  or  the  brush  may  be  used  to  produce  more  detailed  work. 
The  pen  is  a  more  difficult  medium  than  the  pencil.     Ordinary  ink 

2Q5 


296 


NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 


*t~$fL7fKz 


may  be  used,  though  india  ink  is  better.  Instruction  and  practice 
should  be  given  throughout  the  course  in  the  use  of  the  various 
mediums. 

Drawing  is  primarily  a  means  of  expression.    Satisfactory  results 
can  not  be  expected  if  the  practice  in  drawing  is  confined  to  the 

drawing    class.     Like    writing,    it 
should    be    applied     generally    in 
school  work,  and  abundant  oppor- 
tunity may  be  found  in  almost  every 
subject.     Scenes   described   in  the 
reading  lessons  may  be  illustrated, 
cuts  found  in  the  textbooks  may  be 
reproduced,    specimens   and   appa- 
ratus studied  in  the  science  classes 
may  be  drawn,  the  figures  referred 
to    in    mathematics    may    be    con- 
structed,   etc.      The    principles    of 
arrangement,  composition,  and  de- 
sign should  be  applied  to  all  work, 
and  attention  given  to  arrangement 
and    to    the    placing    of    sketches 
and  written  matter  in 
notebooks.      Practice 
in    drawing    out    of 
school    hours    should 
also    be    encouraged. 
A    home    sketchbook 
will  afford  recreation 
while    at    the    same 
time  it  will  lead  the 
pupil  to  observe  close- 
ly and  record  graphi- 
cally what  he  sees. 
While  the  quality  of  line  and  finish  of  the  picture  depends  on  skill 
in  execution,  it  must  not  be  assumed  that  drawing  is  wholly  a  matter 
of  hand  training.     Quality  of  line  and  finish  is  to  drawing  what 
penmanship  is  to  composition.     Of  great  importance  are  thought, 
conception,  knowledge  and  a  desire  to  express,  whether  it  be  in 
line,  light  and  shade,  or  color.    The  ability  to  express  by  drawings 
depends  in  a  large  measure  on  the  development  of  the  imagination, 
the  power  of  carrying  in  the  mind  a  correct  and  vivid  picture  of 
the  thing  to  be  represented.     The  study  of  the  object  is  essential, 


.     ACADEMIC   DRAWING 


297 


but  the  student  should  also  learn  to  draw  without  having  it  before 
him.  This  is  specially  true  in  industrial  drawing,  in  which  the 
object  represented  is  made  from  the  drawing,  not  the  drawing 
from  the  object.  In  this  work  the  order  of  development  is,  first 
the  mental  picture,  then  the  drawing,  then  the  construction  of  the 
object  from  the  drawing. 

As  to  aim,  the  work  in  drawing  should  embrace: 

1  Pictorial  drawing  or  perspective,  showing  the  appearances  of 
objects. 

2  Decorative  drawing  including  design  and  ornamentation. 

3  Constructive  drawing,  consisting  of  geometric  constructions, 
projections,  sections,  developed  surfaces,  and  working  drawings, 
showing  the  facts  of  the  object. 

As  to  method  of  execution,  the  drawings  required  will  be: 

1  Free-hand  drawings,  in  which  the  pencil,  charcoal  or  brush  is 
guided  by  the  eye  and  hand  alone. 

2  Instrumental  drawings,  in  which  the  pencil  is  accurately  guided 
by  mechanical  means. 

Attention  of  teachers  and  candidates  is  directed  to  the  following 
suggestions  and  outline  of  requirements. 

ACADEMIC   DRAWING 

1  Pictorial  drawing.  Free- 
hand. This  division  includes 
objects  and  nature  drawing, 
perspective,  light  and  shade, 
and  illustration. 

This     study    develops    the 
power   of   observation,   trains 
the  eye  to  see  form,  tone  and 
color,  cultivates  the  imagina- 
tion, and  gives  power  of  ex- 
pression   which    is    of    great 
value  in  nearly  all  lines  of  work.     Pupils 
should   have    much    practice    in    free-hand 
drawing   and   use   it   in   their   daily   work. 
They  should  first  have  practice  in  drawing 
by  proportion,  to  judge  by  eye  the  relative 
size  of  one  object  compared  with  another 
or  part   of   an   object   compared   with   the 
whole.    They  should  know  how  to  test  their 
work  by  use  of  the  pencil  held  at  arm's 


298 


NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 


length  and  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  vision,  though  the 
eye  should  be  the  final  test.  It  is  not  necessary  to  know  how 
to  draw  an  object  in  perspective  by  scientific  methods  in  order 
to  draw  from  objects.  The  principal  aim  is  to  train  the  eye 
to  see  perspective  effects,  and  to  draw  freely  and  effectively. 
(Remember  that  the  mere  doing  a  thing  is  noL  so  important  as 
the  knowing  how  to  do  it.)  The  training  that  comes  through 
doing  is  the  object  sought.  It  is  better  to  observe  and  study  phe- 
nomena than  to  adjust  observations  to  fixed  rules.  Learn  to  draw 
by  drawing.  Teach  the  principles  of  perspective  through  the  study 
and  drawing  of  models,  objects,  doors  swung  part  way  open, 
interiors  of  rooms,  furniture,  buildings  and  scenes  from  nature. 

In  this  work  the  quality  of  line  depends  on  the  character  of 
the  object  represented  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  seen. 
If  it  is  near  the  observer  and  has  sharp,  well  defined  edges,  the 
lines  should  be  well  defined.  If  it  has  less  sharply  defined  edges 
or   if   it   is   remote   from   the   observer   or   in   shadow,   its   outlines 


should  be  represented  by  soft,  broad  or  broken  lines.  Contours 
of  objects  with  smooth,  even  surfaces  are  indicated  by  even  lines; 
irregular  and  rough  surfaces  by  broader,  softer  or  broken  lines; 
but  if  the  lines  are  freely  drawn  and  express  the  appearance  of  the 
object,  their  width  and  character  are  of  secondary  importance. 

In  pictorial  work  expression  by  mass  and  light  and  shade  may  be 
required.     In  light  and  shade  drawings  the  mass  of  shade  should 


ACADEMIC    DRAWING 


299 


define  as  nearly  as  possible  the  objects  represented,  and  the  values, 
that  is,  the  relation  of  one  tone  to  another,  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered.    Backgrounds  should  be  inconspicuous. 

The  terms  light  and  dark  and  light  and  shade  are  not  synonymous. 
■Light  and  dark  relates  to  tone  values  in  a  picture  without  regard  to 
light,  shade  and  shadow.  It  also  refers  to  color  values  in  objects; 
a  blue  object  will  be  represented  by  a  darker  tone  than  a  yellow 
object  in  the  same  light.  Mass  drawing  is  the  representation  of 
objects  by  masses  of  varying  tone  or  color  without  special  reference 
to  outline.  This  kind  of  drawing  should  be  practised  both  in  tone 
and  color. 

Light  and  shade  refers  to  the  effect  that  light  has  on  an  object. 
In  drawing  objects  in  light  and  shade  care  should  be  taken  to 
see  that  the  light  comes  from  only  one  direction  on  the  same 
group.  The  best  results  are  obtained  when  the  light  comes  obliquely 
from  the  side.  Study  the  effects  of  objects  lighted  from  the  side, 
from  behind,   and   from   in   front.     Also  the   effects   produced   by 


300  NEW  YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

direct  light,  as  sunlight,  or 
by  a  single  lamplight,  and 
those  produced  by  diffused 
light  as  on  a  cloudy  day,  or 
through  a  broad  opening  or 
several  windows.  Use  pen- 
cil, charcoal  and  brush. 

For  large,  quick  and 
effective  work,  as  well  as 
that  requiring  finish,  there 
is  no  better  medium  than 
charcoal.  The  ease  with 
which  it  is  applied  and 
removed,  and  its  wide  range 
of  possibilities,  make  it  a 
valuable  medium  for  the 
artist.  Hard  charcoal  is 
used  for  point  work  where 
fine  finish  and  detail  are  re- 
quired, and  soft  charcoal  for 
large  masses  and  tone  work. 
It  is  well  to  have  both  kinds. 
Soft  charcoal  usually  comes 
in  small  round  sticks,  and 
the  hard  in  small  split  sticks. 
For  school  work  the  hard  is 
better,  some  of  it  will  be  soft 
enough.  Almost  any  paper 
with  a  rough  surface  will 
do,  but  charcoal  paper  is 
better.  The  work  may  be 
left  untouched  or  rubbed  with  the  finger  or  stump. 

For  tone  work  use  a  stick  of  soft  charcoal,  and  holding  it  at  a 
slight  angle  with  the  paper  so  it  will  make  a  broad  line,  cover 
the  surface  completely  over.  Rub  down  with  a  piece  of  cheese-cloth 
or  soft  rag  to  any  desired  tone.  With  chamois  skin  and  kneaded 
rubber  or  art  gum  wipe  out  the  light  parts.  Darker  portions  may 
be  put  in  with  charcoal  and  rubbed  down  with  the  finger  or  stump, 
or  accented  portions  left  untouched.  Charcoal  work  needs  to  be 
set  with  fixativ  (white  shellac  cut  with  alcohol)  applied  with  an 
atomizer. 


ACADEMIC  DRAWING 


301 


Tone  work  in  charcoal  can  be  used  to  good  advantage  both  in 
pictorial  and  decorative  work,  by  first  covering  the  surface  with 
the  predominating  tone,  then  wiping  out  the  lighter  masses,  and 
putting  in  the  darker  ones. 

Good  effects  may  be  ob-  ( 

tained  by  using  gray  and 
tinted  papers,  putting  in 
the  light  with  white 
crayon;  also  by  using 
charcoal  and  water  color 
together  in  the  same 
sketch  on  white  paper. 

It  is  expected  that  stu- 
dents will  be  familiar  with 
the  following  terms  and 
principles  of  free-hand 
perspective  and  will  be 
able  to  apply  them. 

A  perspective  drawing 
is  a  representation  of  an 
object  presenting  the  same 
appearance  as  the  object 
itself.      In    a   perspective 
drawing  the  object  is  con- 
ceived as  seen  through  a  transparent  plane  called  the  picture  plane. 
Straight  lines  are  imagined  running  from  all  points  of  the  object 
to  the  eye.     The  points  where  these  lines  pierce  the  picture  plane 
are  points  of  the  perspective. 


302  NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

i  Distance  affects  the  apparent  size  of  an  object  and  parts  of 
the  same  object;  the  farther  an  object  or  part  of  an  object  is  from 
the  eye,  the  smaller  it  will  appear. 

2  Position  affects  the  apparent  form  of  an  object. 

3  Surfaces  seen  obliquely  are  foreshortened,  and  do  not  appear 
in  their  true  shape. 

4  A  circle  seen  obliquely  appears  as  an  ellipse. 

5  Parallel  lines  retreating  from  the  eye  appear  to  converge  to 
points  called  vanishing  points. 

6  Lines  parallel  to  the  picture  plane  retain  their  direction  in  the 
perspective.  Hence  vertical  lines  remain  vertical  and  horizontal 
lines  parallel  to  the  picture  plane  remain  horizontal. 

7  Lines  not  parallel  to  the  picture  plane  converge  in  the  per- 
spective as  they  recede  from  the  eye.  The  point  toward  which  the 
perspective  of  any  set  of  parallel  lines  converges  is  called  the  van- 
ishing point. 

8  The  eye  level  is  an  imaginary  horizontal  line  which  represents 
the  level  from  which  the  object  is  seen. 

9  The  line  of  vision  or  line  of  direction  is  an  imaginary  line 
running  from  the  eye  to  the  axis  of  the  object. 

io  All  horizontal  lines,  not  parallel  to  the  picture  plane,  vanish 
at  the  level  of  the  eye.  Hence  those  below  the  level  of  the  eye 
slant  upward  in  the  perspective;  those  above  the  level  of  the  eye 
slant  downward. 

ii  Lines  perpendicular  to  the  picture  plane  vanish  in  the  eye 
level  at  a  point  directly  in  front  of  the  eye.  This  point  is  called 
the  center  of  vision. 

12  All  horizontals  at  an  angle  of  45 °  with  the  picture  plane  vanish 
in  points  at  the  right  or  left  of  the  center  of  vision  and  as  far  from 
it  as  the  eye  is  from  the  center  of  vision. 

13  Linear  perspective  deals  with  the  relative  size  and  shape  of 
objects,  foreshortening  and  convergence  of  lines  and  planes. 

14  Aerial  perspective  deals  with  the  appearance  of  objects  as 
affected  by  atmospheric  conditions.  Objects  appear  less  distinct 
in  form,  light  and  shade,  and  color  as  ^hey  recede  from  the  eye; 
they  lose  their  color  and  appear  gray  in  proportion  to  their  distance. 

Give  much  time  to  practice  and  drill  in  free-hand  drawing  to 
secure  freedom  and  power  of  execution. 

The  examination  will  require  drawings  of 

1  The  following  solids :  sphere,  hemisphere,  ovoid,  cylinder,  cone, 
cube,  square  prism,  plinth,  triangular  prism,  square  pyramid,  vase 
form. 


ACADEMIC    DRAWING 


303 


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f. 


/ 


\//7i '/ 


y 


y^ 


*■>>% 


3%£ 


1  >Y^C\ 


% 


iT^ 


2  Objects  resembling  a  sphere  and  spheroids,  as  an  apple,  a 
peach,  a  turnip. 

3  Objects  having  a  general  cylindric  form,  as  a  box,  a  fruit 
jar,  a  tumbler,  a  stovepipe,  a  hat. 

4  Objects  resembling  the  cone,  as  a  carrot,  a  thimble,  a  beet. 

5  Objects  resembling  the  pyramid,  as  a  spire,  an  inkstand,  a 
metronome. 

6  Objects  having  a  general  rectangular  outline,  as  a  box,  a  table, 
a  door,  a  house. 

7  Leaves,  flowers,  trees  and  other  plant  forms. 

8  Familiar  objects  and  groups  of  objects. 

9  Simple  landscapes. 
•10  Illustrations  of  stories  end  poems. 

To  emphasize  the  value  of  attention  to  technic,  copying  from 
the  flat  may  also  be  required. 

2  Decorative  drawing.  Free-hand  and  instrumental.  This  sub- 
ject is  not  confined  to  ornamentation  alone,  but  should  enter  into 
nearly  all  other  work  not  only  in  drawing  but  in  written  work  and 
manual  training.  The  principles  of  arrangement,  composition, 
design,  and  color  should  be  observed  in  the  notebooks  of  the  science 
work  as  well  as  in  the  drawing  class. 


In  outline,  mass 
and  color 


304  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

Design  does  not  mean  merely  the  making  of  ornament  to  be 
applied  to  a  surface  or  form.  This  is  ornamentation.  Design 
accompanies  construction  from  foundation  to  finish,  producing  by 
perfect  proportion,  pleasing  lines,  and  adaptation  to  purpose,  a 
building  or  a  piece  of  furniture  or  any  object  which  is  a  thing  of 
beauty  in  itself,  without  the  need  of  applied  ornament.  Structural 
design  is  as  much  a  part  of  decorative  drawing  as  applied  design, 
and  should  receive  much  attention.  Design  and  construction  should 
go  hand  in  hand. 

Constructive  design.  This  means  the  designing  of  actual  ob- 
jects which  may  be  constructed.  In  this  work  the  design  depends 
on  the  shape,  proportion,  and  use  to  which  the  object  is  to  be  put. 
The  student  should  be  able  to  make  designs  for  common  and  use- 
ful objects  and  to  make  them  of  suitable  material;  such  as  boxes, 
book  covers,  lamp  shades,  sofa  pillows  and  other  objects,  to  be 
made  of  cardboard  and  cloth ;  book  racks,  wall  brackets,  wall  cabi- 
nets, jardiniere  stands,  etc.,  to  be  made  of  wood ;  baskets  to  be 
made  of  raffia  and  reed;  mats  to  be  woven  of  yarn  and  other 
material. 

Mechanical  aids  such  as  rule,  compasses,  tracing  and  transfer- 
ring may  be  employed  in  decorative  drawing.    Tracing  paper  may 

be  used  to  repeat  the  unit  by 

^^■gSW  <ffra^|    tracing  with  a  soft  pencil.      A 

^^2||^^P  XB^fl    design  may  be  finished   in  out- 

^^        ^^^  ^J  ^^        ^   line,   tone,   or  color.     If  colors 

t^Bk  OTflVran  are  used>   care  should  be  exer- 

J^yP  ^3jy£S£^  cised  in  making  harmonious  com- 

£^0  %^9|  K^V  binations. 

^-j  ^^        ^^^        ^^        1  Fitness  to  purpose  is  the  un- 
/&jmm!$m*  mat    deriving  principle  of  decoration. 

l&^XJ&Jp  SSS        2  That  which  is  used  as  deco- 

ration   should   not    be    of   more 
-w-  j  ^  -    importance  than  the  object  deco- 

fijfek  J^SJftife^^  rated    and    should    not    detract 

PS  Wk^LWM  from  the  usefulness  of  that  ob- 

3  A  part  repeated  to  form  a 
design  is  called  a  unit  or  motif 
of  that  design. 

4  Geometric  figures,  abstract  forms  or  spot  units  may  be  used 
as  motifs  or  sources  of  design ;  also  conventional  treatments  of 
natural  and  historic  forms. 


ACADEMIC    DRAWING  305 

5  Keeping  the  general  characteristics  of  a  natural  form,  omit- 
ting details  and  accidents  of  growth  as  the  method  of  applying  the 
design  may  require,  is  called  conventionalization. 

6  A  unit  of  design  may  be  repeated 

a  About  a  center,  forming  a  rosette  or  radial  arrangement.  In 
a  rosette  the  units  should  spring  from  the  center  and  should  be 
united  at  the  center  by  a  strong  central  figure,  or  from  the  margin 
as  in  a  wreath. 


119 


WM 

SPOT  UNITS 

b  In  a  line  forming  a  border.     In  a  border  marginal  lines  should 
be  used  to  give  stability  to  the  arrangement. 
c  To  cover  a  surface. 

7  In  a  surface  pattern  or  a  border  the  unit  repeated  may  be 
bilateral  in  shape  or  it  may  be  a  rosette  or  other  figure. 

8  A  bilateral  unit  is  one  having  an  axis  of  symmetry,  that  is 
one  which  may  be  divided  into  two  parts  that  balance. 

9  A  balanced  figure  is  one  in  which  the  opposite  parts  are  equal 
but  not  symmetric. 

In  an  original  design  requiring  the  use  of  plant  forms,  care 
should  be  taken  to  observe  the  laws  of  growth.  In  historic  orna- 
ment the  work  will  be  confined  to  simple  examples  of  the  different 
styles.  The  units  in  historic  ornament  are  either  geometric  figures 
or  conventionalized  natural  forms. 


306  NEW    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Satisfactory  work,  in  this  department  involves  a  careful  study 
of  conventionalization  and  of  the  elementary  principles  of  composi- 
tion and  arrangement  for  decorative  purposes,  symmetry,  repetition, 
and  alternation.  Students  should  also  understand  the  principles  of 
contrast,  unity,  strength,  proportion,  variety,  rhythm,  balance,  har- 
mony, and  repose.  They  should  be  able  to  make,  from  given  units, 
simple  geometric  and  floral  designs  for  rosettes,  borders,  and  sur- 
face patterns,  applied  to  book  covers,  wall  paper  and  useful  objects. 
Simple  designs  in  monograms,  initial  letters,  head  and  tail  pieces, 
tiles  etc.,  will  also  be  required. 

In  making  a  design  decide  first  what  the  design  is  for,  how 
it  is  to  be  executed  and  of  what  material  it  is  to  be  made.  Lay 
out  the  form  taking  care  that  the  proportions  are  good.  If  orna- 
ment is  to  be  applied,  decide  on  the  motif,  whether  it  be  plant 
forms,  historic  ornament,  or  abstract  forms.  Arrange  the  orna- 
ment so  that  it  will  be  related  to  the  shape  of  the  object  or  space 
to  be  filled,  and  divide  the  space  into  pleasing  proportions.  .  Strive 
for  simplicity.  Remember  that  beauty  results  from  a  few  well 
arranged  forms  rather  than  from  a  multiplicity  of  complicated 
detail.  j 

Color.  The  study  of  color  should  be  continued  in  the  high 
school  during  at  least  the  first  two  years.  Students  should  be 
familiar  with  the  terms  used,  as  spectrum,  standard,  positive,  pri- 
mary, secondary,  tertiary,  tint,  shade,  tone,  hue,  scale,  pure,  broken, 
gray,  neutral,  warm,  cold,  advancing,  receding,  complementary, 
color  value,  color  harmony,  contrast,  rhythm,  transparent,  opaque, 
pigment  etc. 

They  should  know  the  names  of  the  pigments  most  commonly 
used  and  should  be  able  to  paint  flowers,  fruit,  still  life  and  simple 
landscapes.     Also  to  do  harmonious  coloring  in  design  work. 

3  Constructive  drawing.  This  includes  the  kinds  of  drawing 
known  as  geometric  constructions,  projections,  surface  develop- 
ments, working  drawings,  architectural  and  mechanical  drawing. 
The  work  is  usually  done  with  instruments,  but  practice  should 
be  given  in  free-hand  sketching.  These  subjects  need  not  be  taken 
up  separately  but  the  teacher  should  plan  the  exercises  so  as  to 
include  these  operations.  In  this  work  accuracy  is  of  special 
importance.  Much  practice  in  the  use  of  instruments  is  necessary 
in  order  to  secure  good  results. 

Instruments.  The  pencil  for  this  work  should  be  hard,  and 
sharpened  to  a  chisel  edge  instead  of  a  point.  It  should 
be  kept  sharp  by  frequent  rubbing  on  a  coarse  whetstone  or  piece 


ACADEMIC   DRAWING  3O7 

of  fine  emery  paper.  The  construction  should  be  made  with  this 
pencil  under  light  pressure,  producing  very  fine  but  sharp  lines 
and  well  defined  intersections.  After  the  construction  is  com- 
pleted in  this  way,  the  drawing  should  be  finished  by  retracing, 
with  a  softer  pencil,  or  better  still  with  ruling  pen  and  india  ink, 
such  of  the  lines  as  need  to  be  more  distinct. 

The  compasses  (dividers)  should  have  fine,  hard  points,  one  of 
which  should  be  detachable  for  the  purpose  of  substituting  a 
pencil  point  or  pen.  The  joint  should  be  so  tight  as  not  to  per- 
mit free,  easy  motion,  otherwise  the  distance  between  the  points 
is  likely  to  vary  when  in  use.  The  best  compasses  in  this  respect 
are  those  in  which  the  opening  is  controlled  by  a  spring  and 
thumb  screw. 

In  laying  off  distances,  the  length  desired  should  be  taken  from 
the  scale  by  means  of  compasses,  then  applied  to  the  line. 

A  drawing  board  is  absolutely  essential  to  good  results.  It 
should  be  of  soft  wood,  so  that  paper  can  be  attached  by  thumb 
tacks,  should  be  smoothly  dressed  on  one  side  and  its  left-hand 
edge  should  be  dressed  to  a  straight  line. 

A  T  square  is  also  necessary.  It  is  used  as  shown  in  figure  14, 
the  head  being  pressed  against  the  left-hand  edge  of  the  board. 
By  sliding  the  T  square  along  the  board,  means  are  furnished 


Fig.  14 


for  drawing  accurately  any  number  of  horizontal  lines.  The 
two  right  triangles  or  set  squares  also  shown  in  figure  14  are  im- 
portant. In  one  the  acute  angles  are  each  45  °,  and  in  the  other 
they  are  6o°  and  300.  By  resting  them  on  the  T  square  we  are 
enabled  to  draw  any  number  of  lines  perpendicular  to  those 
drawn  by  aid  of  the  T  square  alone;  also  lines  of  300,  45 °  and 
60 °  with  those  of  either  system  mentioned.  They  also  enable 
us  to  draw  a  parallel  or  a  perpendicular  to  any  line  on  the  board 
and  through  any  point. 


308  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

The  complete  outfit  shown  in  figure  14,  consisting  of  a  drawing 
board,  T  square  and  two  set  squares,  costs  from  35  to  75  cents, 
according  to  size. 

Geometric  constructions.  Candidates  should  be  prepared  to  make 
the  following  geometric  constructions. 

1  To  draw  a  line  perpendicular  to  a  given  line  (a)  from  a  point 
on  the  line,  (b)  from  a  point  outside  the  line,  (c)  at  the  middle 
point  of  the  line,  (d)  at  the  extremity  of  the  line. 

Application  to  construction  of  squares  and  rectangles  when  the 
sides  are  given  and  to  bisection  of  a  given  line. 

2  To  draw  a  parallel  to  a  given  line  (a)  through  a  given  point, 
(b)  at  a  given  distance  from  the  given  line. 

3  To  bisect  a  given  arc  or  a  given  angle. 

4  To  construct  an  angle  equal  to  a  given  angle. 

5  To  construct  triangles  whose  sides  are  given;  (a)  equilateral, 
(b)  isosceles,  (c)  scalene. 

6  To  divide  a  line  into  any  number  of  equal  parts. 

7  To  construct  angles  of  300,  45 °,  6o°,  900,  or  any  number  of 
degrees. 

8  To  draw  a  circumference  through  any  three  points. 
Application  to  finding  center  of  a  given  circumference  and  to 

circumscribing  a  circle  about  a  triangle. 

9  To  inscribe  a  circle  within  a  triangle. 

10  To  draw  a  trefoil,  a  quatrefoil  and  a  cinquefoil. 

11  To  draw  a  regular  pentagon,  hexagon  and  octagon. 

12  To  draw  a  curve  having  a  given  radius  tangential  to  two 
given  lines  forming  a  right  angle  [pi.  2,  fig.  20]. 

Projection  (orthographic).  It  is  not  necessary  for  pupils  to 
study  orthographic  projection  before  making  working  drawings, 
but  high  school  pupils,  after  having  made  working  drawings  in 
the  grades,  should  understand  the  elementary  principles  of  this 
subject.  Teachers  should  explain  the  planes  and  angles  of  pro- 
jection, and  how  projections  are  obtained.  Drawings  may  be  made 
in  either  the  first  or  third  angle,  preferably  the  third,  that  is, 
place  the  top  view  above  the  front  view,  the  left  side  to  the  left 
and  the  right  side  to  the  right  of  the  front  view  [fig.  15].  Draw 
as  many  views  as  will  be  necessary  to  show  all  the  facts  of  the 
object,  and  no  more.  Plan,  front  and  side  elevations  mean  the 
same  as  top,  front  and  side  views.  The  connecting  lines  may  be 
drawn  in  very  fine  full  lines  or  in  dotted  lines.  All  drawings  should 
first  be  worked  in  pencil,  and  in  fine  full  lines.  If  inked  they  may 
be  in  dotted  black  lines  or  fine  full  red  or  green  lines  [see  fig.  15 
and  16]. 


Plate  i 


f 

e 

/ 

V 

\ 

d 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

a 

-\ 

a 

1 

i 

\ 

J 

I 

9          \ 

C  ct 

Fig.  15 


*"H'~r':     Fig.  16 


Fig.  J  7 


Conventional  Lines 

Visible  edges  

Invisible  edges  

Shadow  lines  — — — 

Center  lines  

Working  ond  

Projecting  lines 
Dimension  lines 
Cross  -section  lines 


or 


ACADEMIC   DRAWING  309 

Development  of  surfaces  of  geometric  solids  except  sphere  and 
spheroids,  and  of  common  objects,  and  longitudinal  and  transverse 
sections  of  simple  objects  will  also  be  required.  Shadow  lines 
are  not  necessary  but  are  sometimes  used  in  a  working  drawing. 
Light,  if  considered,  is  usually  assumed  to  come  from  above  and 
the  left,  and  in  this  case  those  edges  separating  the  light  and  dark 
faces  are  made  heavier.  In  common  practice  the  right  hand  and 
lower  lines  are  made  heavier,  except  when  the  forms  are  spheric 
or  cylindric  [fig.  18]. 

Working  drawings.  A  working  drawing  is  a  drawing  from  which 
the  object  represented  may  be  made.  The  dimensions  should  be 
indicated  on  the  drawing  by  figures.  Feet  and  inches  may  be  rep- 
resented by  marks  of  accent,  thus :  4'  2"  reads  four  feet,  two  inches. 

Make   the   dividing  line   of   the  fraction   horizontal   as  J"      not 

oblique  as     //''    1  ^ 

:  ? 

Dimensioning.  This  is  the  most  vital  part  of  a  working  draw- 
ing. The  drawing  might  be  drawn  free-hand  and  out  of  proportion 
but  the  dimensions  given  must  be  accurate.  Dimensions  may  be 
placed  either  outside  or  inside  the  drawing,  whichever  will  be  the 
most  clearly  read.  When  outside,  place  them  about  J  inch  or  more 
away.  When  inside,  put  them  in  a  clear  space  where  they  will 
not  interfere  with  the  drawing.  They  should  be  placed  so  as  to 
read  from  left  to  right,  and  from  the  bottom  upward.  The  arrow- 
heads should  be  acute  angles,  the  vertex  of  the  angles  being  at 
or  opposite  the  points  between  which  measurements  are  made 
[fig.  17].  If  opposite,  extension  lines  should  be  drawn  from  the 
points  to  be  measured  to  the  arrowheads  [fig.  17].  If  there  is 
not  room  enough  for  the  arrowheads  between  the  lines  place  them 
outside.  If  there  is  not  room  enough  between  the  lines  for  plain 
figures  put  them  outside  [fig.  17]. 

The  distance  from  any  point  to  round  holes  and  cylindric  objects 
should  be  measured  to  the  center,  not  to  the  edge  [fig.  18]. 

Show  "  over-all  "  dimensions  on  a  separate  line  from  those  giving 
the  shorter  dimensions  [fig.  17]. 

Indicate  the  radius  of  a  curve  as  shown  in  figure  19.  It  is  well 
to  place  a  small  circle  around  the  center  point  so  it  may  be  readily 
found. 

Indicate  the  number  of  degrees  in  an  angle  as  shown  in  figure  21. 

In  drawing  round  or  cylindric  objects  draw  the  view  that  shows 
the  circle  first,  and  draw  the  other  view  by  projecting  lines  tangent 
to  the  circle. 


3io 


NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 


Cross-sections  may  be  made  as  shown  in  figures  22,  23,  24. 

Conventional  lines  used  in  working  drawings.  Visible  edges 
and  outlines  are  represented  by  full  lines,  which  may  vary  some 
according  to  the  drawing.  A  large  open  drawing  requires  a  heavier 
line  than  a  small  intricate  one.  Invisible  edges  and  outlines  are 
shown  by  a  dash  line,  lighter  than  the  full  line.  Center  lines  are 
made  with  a  dot  and  dash.  Section  lines  should  be  finer  than  the 
full  lines.  Two  pieces  of  material  coming  together  should  be  sec- 
tioned in  opposite  directions  [fig.  22].  Dimension  and  extension 
lines  are  fine  full  lines  with  a  space  left  for  the  figures  [fig.  17]. 
Connecting  lines  may  be  fine  full  or  dotted  lines.  In  a  working 
drawing  the  connecting  lines  are  usually  omitted   [fig-   18}. 

Scale  drazmng.  When  a  drawing  is  not  made  full  size  it  is  said 
to  be  drawn  to  scale.  A  drawing  made  to  a  scale  of  3"  —  i', 
if  =  1',  \"  =  i',  can  easily  be  drawn  with  an  ordinary  ruler 
marked  off  in  feet  and  inches.  (1)  In  a  scale  of  3"  =  I',  \  inch 
equals  1  inch;  (2)  in  a  scale  of  \\"  =  1',  \  inch  equals  1  inch; 
(3)  in  a  scale  of  §"■  =  1',  T\  inch  equals  1  inch;  other  scales, 
such  as  1"  equals  1',  or  h"  equals  1',  must  either  be  bought  or 
made.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  make  a  scale  and  to  use  one. 
Figure  25  is  a  scale  of  \  '  ==  1'. 


c'   7" 

b 

r 

M|ll|M|l> 
16    3 

0 

2              3 

SCALE   i"=i' 

4. 

\                 5               i 

Fig.  25 

The  space  to  the  right  of  °  are  feet  and  those  to  the  left  are 
inches.  In  laying  off  distances  with  this  scale  start  at  the  °  point 
counting  to  the  right  for  feet  and  to  the  left  for  inches,  as  shown 
in  figure  25.  The  distance  from  a  to  b  is  5'  7".  If  the  same  dis- 
tance is  taken  off  with  the  compasses,  put  one  leg  of  the  compasses 
on  the  mark  at  5  feet  and  open  the  compasses  till  it  reaches  to 
7  inches.    In  making  a  scale  use  a  piece  of  stiff  paper  or  thin  wood. 

Students  should  have  much  practice  and  drill  in  sketching  objects 
from  sight,  dictation  and  memory,  and  in  making  free-hand  work- 
ing drawings  of  common  objects.  The)  will  be  required  to  make 
working  drawings  from  free-hand  sketches,  dictation,  and  from 
measurement. 

Examples.  From  free-hand  sketch.  Make  a  working  drawing 
of  the  object  represented  by  a  sketch.     (Teacher  make  sketch.) 


Plate  2 


7T 


i_jn 


-P 


l       ;       ' 
i  i 


Fig.  IS  Scale    one  half  full  sine 


> 


^7.  J?/ 


Fig  20 


Fig.  19 


1 
1 

'W//M& 

^ 

§» 

I 

Stile   1 

1 
1 
J_ 

Panel 

/ 

Rail 

Fig.  22 


Section  on  line  /I  B 
Fig.  23 


m\ 

® 

"W/Z/J' 

Fig. 2  4 


ACADEMIC   DRAWING  3II 

From  dictation.  Make  a  working  drawing  of  a  square  plinth 
resting  on  the  top  of  a  hollow  cylinder.  Show  the  dimensions.  Or, 
make  a  working  drawing  of  a  block  of  stone  4  feet,  6  inches  long, 
2  feet,  4  inches  wide,  and  1  foot  thick.     Scale  1"  equals  i'. 

From  measurement.  Let  the  student  make  a  working  drawing 
of  some  object,  as  a  box,  slate,  desk  top,  door,  wheel,  or  model 
made  in  the  shop.  To  make  a  drawing  from  measurement  the 
student  should  first  make  a  free-hand  sketch  of  the  object,  judg- 
ing the  proportions  by  eye.  Measure  the  object  and  place  the 
measurement  on  the  sketch,  and  work  from  the  sketch.  In  drawing 
to  scale  be  sure  to  put  on  the  full  dimensions. 

Lettering.  Lettering  forms  an  important  part  of  the  work  in 
drawing,  and  should  receive  much  attention.  Designs  for  book 
covers,  cards,  billheads  etc.,  are  often  made  by  the  use  of  letters 
alone.  In  mechanical  and  architectural  drawing  much  importance 
is  attached  to  good  lettering;  a  good  drawing  is  often  spoiled  in 
appearance  by  bad  lettering.  Students  should  practice  lettering 
in  their  notebooks  as  well  as  on  their  drawing  sheets. 

While  good  lettering  depends  largely  on  well  formed  letters,  the 
spacing  and  arrangement  of  the  letters  and  words  are  of  great 
importance.  Lettering  is  an  exercise  in  design.  Letters  and  words 
should  be  considered  as  spots.  All  letters  are  to  be  considered  of 
equal  importance;  one  should  not  attract  more  attention  than  an- 
other on  account  of  its  making  a  darker  spot  or  leaving  a  lighter 
space.  Each  letter  should  be  unmistakable  and  each  word  separated 
from  another. 

Students  should  start  with  a  simple  letter,  and  learn  one  alpha- 
bet thoroughly.  They  will  then  have  no  difficulty  with  others. 
Take  a  plain  Gothic  letter  as  shown  on  plate  3.  Begin  with  the 
capitals ;  these  are  uniform  in  hight  but  not  in  width.  Draw  two 
light  horizontal  lines,  the  distance  apart  being  equal  to  the  hight 
of  the  letters.  Study  carefully  the  form  and  proportions  of  each 
letter.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  letters  B,  E,  H,  S,  X  and  Z. 
are  larger  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  (To  test  this  look  at 
them  bottom  side  up.)  Draw  a  third  line  slightly  above  halfway 
(this  will  vary  with  the  different  styles).  Letters  vary  in  width, 
but  beginners  may  make  them  (if  they  are  obliged  to  measure  each 
letter)  equal  in  width  except  they  should  make  the  M  and  W  wider, 
and  I,  J,  L  and  T  narrower.  By  study  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
spaces  are  not  all  equal.  If  the  letters  and  spaces  were  made  uni- 
formly equal  the  result  would  be  that  one  part  of  a  word  would 
look  darker  than  another,  as  in  a  and  b.    c  and  d  look  better.    Do 


312  NEW  YORK   STATE  EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

not  take  printed  matter  as  standard,  for  letters  printed  from  type 
are  not  always  well  spaced. 

Begin  by  drawing  each  letter  carefully.  Make  large  letters  with 
charcoal,  chalk,  or  blunt  pencil.  Sketch  in  a  light  skeleton  outline, 
free-hand,  and  strengthen  to  the  desired  thickness;  if  very  large 
draw  in  double  line  and  fill  in.  Be  sure  to  make  the  lines  very  light 
so  that  changes  may  easily  be  made.  Make  small  letters  the  same 
way  but  use  a  sharper  point.  Small  letters  are  inked  in  with  a  pen ; 
large  ones  with  a  brush.  When  letters  having  a  long  vertical  line, 
as  I,  H  and  B,  come  together  the  space  should  be  greater  than  in 
such  letters  as  C,  O  and  S ;  and  when  letters  like  A,  L,  P  and  V 
come  together  the  space  should  be  very  small.  Notice  the  spacing 
in  words  "lettering"  and  "hillside"  [see  pi.  3].  As  a  rule  leave 
a  space  equal  to  the  width  of  a  letter  H  between  the  words. 

To  make  small  or  minuscule  letters,  draw  two  light  lines  the  same 
distance  apart  as  for  capitals.  Divide  the  space  into  three  equal 
parts  (this  may  vary),  and  draw  a  line  through  the  upper  point. 
In  the  two  thirds  space  make  the  body  of  the  letter,  the  "  loop  "  in 
the  upper  part.  Draw  another  line  below  these  at  a  distance  equal 
to  the  upper  space  for  letters  that  go  below  the  line  [see  e,  pi.  3]. 

It  is  easier  to  make  -slanting  letters  look  well  than  vertical  ones. 
In  order  to  get  them  of  an  equal  slant  draftsmen  sometimes  make 
a  series  of  parallel  oblique  lines  with  the  T  square  and  triangle  at 
an  angle  of  60  or  70  °  to  be  used  as  guides  as  shown  at  f. 

Roman  letters  and  those  that  have  thick  strokes,  hair  lines, 
ceriphes  and  spurs  are  more  difficult  and  should  be  avoided  by  be- 
ginners [see  g]. 

To  avoid  the  common  error  of  making  the  wrong  stroke  heavy 
remember  this  simple  rule.  If  the  letters  are  made  without  taking 
the  pencil  from  the  paper,  the  down  stroke  will  be  the  heavy  one 
as  shown  at  h. 

The  S  is  heavy  in  the  middle  not  at  the  ends.     W      *** 

The  capital  I  has  no  dot. 

Make  periods  the  same  width  as  the  heavy  part  of  the  letter. 

Keep  the  same  slant  in  all  letters. 

In  mechanical  drawing  avoid  fancy  lettering. 

When  a  given  space  is  to  be  filled  with  lettering  it  will  be  found 
best  to  design  the  letters  on  another  piece  of  paper  and  when  just 
right  transfer  by  tracing. 

Where  lettering  requires  centering,  it  is  often  best  to  draw  an 
axial  line  and  work  from  the  center  each  way  [see  i]. 


Plate  3 


ABCDEFGHIJKLM 
N  0  PQRSTUVWXYZ 

Hl)(:(l(>l()>iijkliimo|)qf.slii\ywxY7 
LETTERING  HILLSIDE 
LETTERING  HILLSIDE 

£».    AMNV 
tfX     WXYZ 

GEOMETRICAL  PROBLEMS 

£  ■-*.  Section  nn  line  A  -/i-gzg: 
ARCHITECTURAL  DEVEIQPMENTS 

s§a  nsbE&n  unTEfeind 


A  GOOD  LETTER 


ADVANCED   DRAWING 


313 


ADVANCED  DRAWING 

The  examination  in  advanced  drawing  will  include 

1  Pictorial  drawing.  Free-hand.  A  more  extended  application 
of  the  principles  of  perspective,  and  free-hand  drawings  of  familiar 
objects  and  landscapes,  figure  drawing,  light  and  shade,  grouping, 
composition  and  color. 

To  give  power  in  landscape  drawing,  students  should  be  encour- 
aged to  make  sketches  of  picturesque  bits  in  their  home  sketch- 
book. It  is  quite  a  problem  to  select  from  a  mass  of  detail,  the 
essential  points  which  make  the  picture.  The  tendency  to  crowd 
in  many  details  should  be  avoided. 

In  a  drawing  showing  full  values  there  is  background,  middle 
distance  and  foreground.  Then  technic  in  such  pictures  should 
always  bring  out  clearly  what  is  in  the  foreground  with  corre- 
sponding diminution  of  values  to  the  background,  which  is  the  least 
distinct. 

In  figure  drawing  look  first  for  the  effect  as  a  whole,  for  action, 
character  and  proportion.  Compare  different  parts  of  the  figure 
to  give  relative  size  and  shape. 

Grouping  is  the  art  of  arranging  objects  in  a  pleasing  manner. 
A  row  or  a  mere  collection  of  objects  is  not  a  group  in  pictorial 
composition.     The   objects   represented   should   be   arranged   with 


314  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

reference  to  one  principal  object,  to  which  the  others  are  accessory, 
and  they  should  be  placed  so  that  the  eye  may  take  in  the  whole 
group  at  once. 

Objects  which  are  dissimilar  in  form  and  tone  and  are  harmonious 
in  color  group  well.  Remember  that  variety  is  more  pleasing  than 
sameness. 

As  two  solids  can  not  occupy  the  same  space  at  the  same  time, 
care  should  be  taken  in  the  drawing  of  a  group  of  objects  standing 
at  the  same  level,  that  the  bases,  if  wholly  represented,  do  not 
interfere. 

2  Decorative  drawing.  Free-hand  and  instrumental.  A  more 
extended  study  of  the  principles  of  decoration  and  a  higher  degree 
of  excellence  in  the  work  in  design,  including  conventional  plant 
forms,  historic  ornament,  color  and  constructive  design  will  be 
required.  The  examination  will  presuppose  ability  to  make  original 
designs  in  line,  tone  and  color,  showing  good  space  relations,  and 
a  free  conventionalization  of  plant  form.  A  more  comprehensive 
study  of  historic  ornament  is  required  than  in  the  elementary 
syllabus.  The  work  during  these  years  should  assume  a  practical 
nature.  The  designs  should  be  for  some  purpose  and  should  be 
worked  out  in  the  material  best  suited  for  the  purpose.  For  stencil- 
ing on  cloth  use  artist's  oil  colors  and  a  brush  having  short  bristles. 
Trays,  dishes  and  other  useful  and  ornamental  forms  may  be  made 
of  sheet  copper  hammered  into  shape.  Vase  forms  may  be  designed 
and  made  of  clay,  and  if  a  pottery  or  large  kiln  is  situated  near  by 
they  can  be  fired  and  preserved. 

In  schools  where  manual  training  is  taught,  objects  to  be  made 
of  wood  should  be  designed  and  constructed,  as  wall  brackets,  wall 
cabinets,  taborets,  book  racks,  and  furniture.  Book  covers  may  be 
made  with  appropriate  ornamentation.  Head  and  tail  pieces  may 
be  executed  in  pen  and  ink  [use  drawing  ink]  and  reproduced  at 
a  printing  office.  Work  for  reproduction  should  be  made  once  and 
a  half  or  double  the  size  it  is  to  be  when  finished.  It  is  not  expected 
that  pupils  will  do  all  of  the  above  work,  but  make  a  choice  of  one 
branch  and  learn  to  do  that  well. 

3  Constructive  work.  Review  the  geometric  problems  found 
under  "  Drawing,"  and  adti  the  following : 

1  Draw  a  curve  having  a  given  radius  tangent  to  two  given  lines 
forming  (a)  an  acute  angle,  (b)  an  obtuse  angle. 

A  tangent  must  always  be  perpendicular  to  the  radius,  at  the 
point  of  tangency. 

2  Draw  a  curve  having  a  given  radius  tangent  to  a  given  line 
and  a  given  circle  [pi.  4,  fig.  29]. 


Plate  4 


ADVANCED   DRAWING  315 

3  Draw  a  curve  having  a  given  radius  tangent  to  two  given 
centers  [fig.  28]. 

Circles  are  tangent  to  each  other  on  a  line  connecting  their 
centers   [fig.  28]. 

4  Draw  a  reversed  curve  [fig.  29]. 

Students  should  be  able  to  work  out  the  following:  projections 
of  geometric  solids  in  oblique  positions,  construction  of  ellipses, 
transverse  and  longitudinal  sections  of  geometric  solids  and  com- 
mon objects,  development  of  surfaces  of  prisms,  pyramids,  cylin- 
ders, cones,  frustums,  and  of  common  objects  based  on  these  forms, 
also  of  oblique  sections  of  cylinders  and  prisms ;  working  drawings 
of  common  objects  from  sketches,  dictation,  and  measurement. 
When  drawing  from  measurement  a  free-hand  working  drawing 
should  first  be  made,  judging  the  proportions  by  the  eye.  Measure 
the  object  and  place  the  dimensions  on  the  sketch;  then  work  from 
the  sketch.  If  manual  training  is  taught  the  students  should  make 
working  drawings  of  the  objects  they  make,  first  by  free-hand,  then 
with   instruments. 

Students  should  be  able  to  make  plans  and  elevations  of  a  small 
dwelling,  a  schoolhouse,  shop,  or  other  building. 

In  schools  where  two  lines  of  work  can  be  carried  out,  the  work 
in  advanced  drawing  may  be  divided  into  two  courses;  i.  e.  art 
course  and  mechanical  course.  Students  taking  the  art  course  will 
take  architectural  drawing,  design  and  the  study  of  art,  historical 
and  modern.  This  should  be  a  continuation  of  the  work  done  in  the 
grades. 

Students  should  be  familiar  with  the  names  of  artists  and  their 
principal  works,  of  the  different  schools,  beginning  with  the  old 
masters  and  ending  with  the  modern  artists.  Not  only  easel  pictures 
but  sculpture  and  mural  decoration  should  receive  their  just  share 
of  attention. 

Illustrations  of  such  work  by  old  masters  together  with  modern 
work  may  be  given  by  stereopticon  lectures,  arousing  and  sustaining 
the  interest  of  students  to  a  point  where  they  can  pursue  the  study 
independently.  Art  exhibitions,  museums,  photographs  and  books 
offer  opportunities  for  becoming  familiar  with  examples  of  fine  art 
not  sufficiently  known  and  appreciated. 

Architectural  drazving.  The  first  thing  to  do  in  designing  a  build- 
ing is  to  decide  what  the  building  is  for,  the  size,  location  and  sur- 
roundings of  the  lot  on  which  it  is  to  be  erected  ;  the  limit  of  cost ;  the 
material  of  which  it  is  to  be  built;  the  size  and  number  of  rooms. 
Think  it  out  and  get  a  mental  picture  of  it,  and  make  free-hand 
sketches  of  the  plans  and  elevations  to  get  location  of  rooms,  doors, 


3l6  NEW   YORK   STATE   EDUCATION   DEPARTMENT 

windows,  stairs,  chimney  etc.  Decide  on  the  size  and  shape  and 
while  having  the  whole  house  in  mind  begin  with  the  plan  of  the  first 
floor.  Building  plans  are  usually  made  to  a  scale  of  -J"  equals  i'; 
preliminary  sketches  are  often  made  to  that  of  -J"  equals  i'.  Locate 
the  rooms,  stairs,  chimney,  doors  and  windows.  Be  sure  to  leave 
room  enough  for  the  stairs.  In  figuring  the  stairs  for  an  ordinary 
dwelling  allow  from  7  to  8  inches  for  the  risers,  and  from  10  to  12 
inches  for  the  treads.  The  lower  the  riser  the  wider  the  tread.  The 
sum  of  the  two  should  be  about  18  inches.  Plan  to  have  the  parti- 
tions in  the  second  floor  over  those  in  the  first  floor  when  possible. 
The  bathroom  on  the  second  floor  should  be  over  or  nearly  over  the 
plumbing  of  the  first  floor,  not  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  house. 
Each  fireplace  should  have  a  separate  flue  in  the  chimney.  While 
drawing  the  floor  plans  keep  in  mind  the  elevations.  Keep  all  work  in 
light  lines  for  many  changes  will  need  to  be  made.  Before  starting 
the  elevations  draw  a  section  of  the  framework  showing  the  dis- 
tances between  the  floors,  width  of  timber,  finish,  hight  of  windows 
etc.  Draw  the  end  elevation  and  project  from  this  to  the  side 
elevation.  When  it  is  entirely  finished  in  pencil,  and  all  corrections 
and  changes  made,  it  may  be  inked  in,  or  a  tracing  made  in  ink 
on  tracing  cloth  from  which  blue  prints  may  be  made. 

Problems.  Pupils  may  draw  the  second  floor  and  cellar  plans 
and  side  elevations  of  the  house  on  plate  5. 

Design  a  mantle  for  the  fireplace. 

Design  a  sideboard  for  the  dining  room. 

Design  a  color  scheme  with  decorations  for  the  dining  room,  and 
living  room. 

Design  a  mat  to  be  woven  or  hooked  from  rags  for  the  sitting 
room. 

Design  a  house  similar  to  this  one. 

Mechanical  drawing.  Students  taking  the  mechanical  course  will 
take  free-hand  object  drawing  by  pictorial  representation,  and  by 
working  drawings,  and  instrumental  drawing  of  geometric  construc- 
tions, orthographic  projection,  surface  developments  and  working 
drawings  of  machine  details  as,  bolts,  nuts,  levers,  cranks,  cams, 
pulleys  etc.  For  this  purpose  boys  can  obtain  pieces  of  machinery 
at  the  machine  shops,  foundries  and  hardware  stores  or  take  parts 
of  farming  machinery. 

Students  should  be  able  to  make  working  drawings  to  scale  from 
a  pictorial  sketch,  showing  cross-sections. 

The  examination  questions  will  be  arranged  in  groups  to  meet  the 
different  courses. 


Plate  5 


F\o^1"    ElLEV/VTiO^ 

Scale  4  =1-0" 


ADVANCED   DRAWING  317 

Books  on  drawing 

Each  academic  school  library  should  contain  one  set  of  each  of 
current  textbooks  on  drawing,  including  manuals,  and  as  many  as 
possible  of  such  reference  books  on  art  as  the  following. 

Adams,  C.  L.     Mechanical  Drawing.     Boston.     George  H.  Ellis  Co.  $2.25. 

For  advanced  drawing. 

Bailey,  H.  T.     School  Sanitation  and  Decoration.     Heath  $1.50. 

Batchelder,  Ernest  A.  The  Principles  of  Design.  Chicago.  Inland 
Printer  $3. 

Bell,  Mrs  N.  R.  E.  (Meugens).  Elementary  History  of  Art;  Archi- 
tecture, Sculpture,  Painting,  by  N.  D.  Anvers.     1889.     Scribner  $3.75. 

Brown,  Frank  C.    Letters  and  Lettering.     Boston.    Bates,  Guild  Co.  $2. 

Clark,  Ernest  E.  A  Handbook  of  Plant  Forms.  New  York.  John 
Lane  Co.  $2.50. 

Crane,  Walter.    Line  and  Form.    Bell  &  Sons  $2.25. 

Cross,  Anson  K.     Mechanical  Drawing.     Ginn  $1.25. 

Day,  L.  F.     Nature  in  Ornament.     Scribner  $4.50. 

Dow,  Arthur  W.     Composition.     J.  M.  Bowles  $1.50. 

Edminster,  C.  F.  Architectural  Drawing.  New  York.  David  Wil- 
liams Co.  $2. 

Emery,  M.  S.  How  to  Enjoy  Pictures;  with  a  special  chapter  on  pic- 
tures in  the  schoolroom,  by  S.  Skinner.     Prang  $1.50. 

Goodyear,  W.  H.     History  of  Art.     Ed.  7.     Barnes  $3. 

Hamerton,  P.  G.     The  Graphic  Arts.     Little  $2. 

Thoughts  about  Art.     Roberts  $2. 

Hamlin,  A.  D.  F.     History  of  Architecture.     Longmans  $2. 

Hoyt,  D.  L.     World's  Painters  and  their  Pictures.     Ginn  $1.40. 

Hurll,  Estelle  M.     Riverside  Art  Series.     Houghton  75c  and  40c  a'  v. 

Jackson,   F.   G.     Decorative    Design.      Lippincott   $2. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Design.     Lippincott  $2.50. 

Jepson,  George.     Cam  Construction.     Boston.     L.  Van  Nostrand  $1.50. 

For  advanced  drawing. 

Lilley  &  Midgely.     Book  of  Studies  in  Plant  Form.     Scribner  $1.50. 

Marquand  &  Frothingham.     History  of  Sculpture.     Longmans  $1.50. 

Martin,  Clarence  A.  Building  Construction.  Boston.  Bates,  Guild 
Co.  $2. 

Mayeux,  Henri.     Manual  of  Decorative  Composition.     Appleton  $1.50. 

Meyer,  F.  S.     Handbook  of  Ornament.     Hessling  $3.60. 

Miller,  L.  W.     Essentials  of  Perspective.     Scribner  $1.50. 

Morris,  William.     Art's  and  Craft's  Essays.     Scribner  $2.50. 

Parkhurst,  Daniel  B.  Sketching  from  Nature.  Orange  N.  J.  Author 
50c. 

Perry,  Walter  S.    Egypt  and  the  Land  of  the  Temples.     Prang  $1.50. 

Poore,  H.  R.  Pictorial  Composition.   New  York.   Baker  &  Taylor  $1.50. 

Redgrave,  Richard.     Manual  of  Design.     Scribner  $1. 

Ruskin,  John.    Modern  Painters.    2v.     Maynard,  Merrill  &  Co.  $3. 

Tadd,  J.  Liberty.  New  Methods  of  Education;  Art;  Manual  Training; 
Nature  Study.     Judd  $3. 


318  XF.W    YORK    STATE   EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 

Tarbell,  F.  B.     History  of  Greek  Art.     Macmillan  6s. 
Van  Dyke,  J.  C.     Art  for  Art's  Sake.     Scribner  $1.50. 

History  of  Painting.     Longmans  $1.50. 

How  to  Judge  a  Picture.     New  York.     Eaton  &  Mains  60c. 

Vanderpoel,  Emily  Noyes.     Color  Problems.     Longmans  $5. 

Ward,  J.     Historic  Ornament.     2v.     Scribner  $6. 

Weir,  Irene.     Pose  Drawing.     Ginn  50c. 

Wornum,  R.  N.     Analysis  of  Ornament.     Chapman  8s. 

Periodicals 

The  School  Arts  Book.     Worcester  Mass.     $1  a  year.      (Monthly) 
The  Studio.    New  York.    $5.     (Monthly) 
The  Craftsman.     Syracuse.     $3.     (Monthly) 
Masters  in  Art.     Boston.    $1.50.     (Monthly) 

Manual  Training  Magazine.  Peoria  111.  Manual  Arts  Press  $1  a  year. 
(Quarterly) 

Helps 

Audubon  Bird  Charts.     Parts  I  and  II.     Prang  $1.30  a  pt. 

Bell's  Supplementary  Drawing  Helps.     Syracuse.     Bardeen  10c  a  pt. 

Historic  Ornament  Plates.     Colored.     Prang  $10.95. 

Pencil  Sketches  of  Native  Trees.  Woodbury.  Milton  Bradley  Co.  60c 
a  set. 

Nature  Drawings.    Worcester  Mass.    Davis  Press  60c. 

Pictures,  blue  prints  and  other  helps.  Teachers  should  keep  informed 
on  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  work. 


INDEX 


The  superior  figures  tell  the  exact  place  on  the  page  in  ninths;  e.  g.  273s 
means  page  273,  beginning  in  the  third  ninth  of  the  page,  i.  e.  about  one 
third  of  the  way  down. 


Academic      diploma,     requirements, 

i39-i52. 

Academic  students,  term  denned,  59. 

Agriculture,  i5i1-57°;  counts,  n9. 

Algebra,  counts,  n7;  elementary, 
497-528;  intermediate,  527-539;  ad- 
vanced, 558-577. 

American  history,  2  2  66~475;  counts, 
ii";  time  allotments,   1609. 

Ancient  history,  i628-827;  counts, 
ii9;  time  allotments,   1607. 

Apportionment  based  on  examina- 
tions, 64;  for  attendance,   65. 

Arithmetic,  advanced, 487-498;counts, 
ii7. 

Biologic      science,  ioS^i2;   counts, 

ii8. 
Bookkeeping,  counts.  121 ;  elementary, 

2733-756;    advanced,    27s7— 77s. 
Botany,     counts,     ii8;     elementary, 

io9x-i38;  advanced,  i2  38-2  86. 
Business  subjects,  2  72*-942;  counts, 


Caesar's     Gallic  war,  334~341. 

Chemistry,  821-io44;  counts,  n8; 
topical  syllabus  in,  82^9 13;  labor- 
atory syllabus  in,  9i4-io44. 

Cicero's  Orations,  34s. 

Civil  government,  2483-678;  counts, 
119. 

Classical  academic  diploma,  require- 
ments,   152. 

Classical  students,  use  of  term,   56. 

Commerce,  history  of,  28i6-867; 
counts,  122. 

Commercial  geography,   2868-9ifl; 
counts,  1  a1. 

Commercial  law,  2  799-8i6;  counts, 
12'. 


Composition,  see  English  composi- 
tion. 

Counts,  distribution,  n1-i23;  change 
in  system,  144; 

Credentials,  requirements,  i39-i53*, 
differentiated,  148;  business,  272s- 
733- 

Diplomaj     see  Academic  diploma. 

Drawing,  2951-3i88;  counts,  123; 
advanced,  3i31-i69;bookson,  3171- 
188. 

Economics,  2  681-7i9;  counts,   ii". 

Education,  history  and  principles  of, 
counts,  123. 

English,  1 62-3o7;  counts,  n1;  abolish- 
ment of  first  and  second  year  tests, 
138;  examinations  in  first  and 
second  year  issued  on  request,  138; 
first  year,  i91-2o7 ;  second  year,  207- 
2 19;    third    year,    2  21-233;    fourth 


entrance     requirements    in,     24 


2  62;  list  of  books  for  supplemen- 
tary reading  recommended  by  the 
National  Educational  Association, 

2  53-292. 

English  composition,  1 72; in  first  year 
English,  196,  206;  in  second  year 
English,  a  i1,  217;  in  third  year 
English,  2  23,  2  28-233;  in  fourth 
year  English,  237,  24*. 

English  grammar,  i79-i86,  29s; 
counts,  ii2;  in  first  year  English, 
199,  207;  in  second  year  English, 
2 13,  2 19;  in  third  year  English,  22', 
23s;  in  fourth  year  English,  241,  24s. 

English  history,  2io4-264;  counts, 
ii9;  time  allotments,   1608. 

English  language  and  literature,  his- 
tory of,  297-3o7;  counts,  11*. 


320 


NEW    YORK    STATE    EDUCATION    DEPARTMENT 


English  literature,  i65-i72,  2  97~3o7; 
in  first  year  English,  192,  202;  in 
second  year  English,  208,  215;  in 
third  year  English,  221,  2  27;  in 
fourth  year  English,  23"*,  24s. 

European  history,  i827-2io4;  counts, 
119;  time  allotments,   1608. 

Examinations,  instituted,  57;  Regents 
ordinance  of  1864,  57;  apportion- 
ment based  on,  64;  apportionment 
system  abandoned,  65;  purposes  of 
establishing,  67-78;  growth,  statis- 
ics.io1;  dates  when  first  held,  io4; 
principles  governing,   i25-i39. 

French,  381,  427-457;  counts,  n5; 
examinations  covering  first  two 
years,  136;  elementary  require- 
ment, 427-442;  intermediate  re- 
quirement, 442;  advanced  require- 
ment, 451. 

Geometry,  counts,  n7;  plane,  541; 
solid,  543. 

German,  381-426;  counts,  n5;  exam- 
inations covering  first  two  years, 
13°;  elementary  requirement,  38s- 
404 ;  intermediate  requirement,  4oB- 
415;  advanced  requirement,  415- 
42°. 

Grammar,   see   English   grammar. 

Greek,  3ix-323,  351— 37s;  counts,  n3; 
examinations  covering  first  two 
years,  137;  first  year,  354-362;  se- 
cond year,  36s;  third  year,  368~373. 

Historical    sketch  of  syllabus,  33-io4. 
History,  i581-2476;  counts,  n9. 
Home  science,  counts,  123. 
Homer's  Iliad,  368~375. 
Hygiene,  ii99-237;  counts,  n8. 

Laboratory  practice,  see  Chemistry; 
Physical  geography;    Physics. 

Language  and  literature,  i62-473; 
counts,  111. 

Latin,  3i1~349;  counts,  n3;  exami- 
nations covering  first  two  years, 
137;  first  year,  324-333;  second 
year,  333-34x;  third  year,  342; 
fourth  year,  34°. 

Literature,  i62-3o7.  See  also  English 
literature. 


Literature  fund,  established,  51,  prin- 
ciples governing  apportionment, 
52;  law  amending  distribution,  63. 

Mathematics,  48^5 77;  counts,  n7. 
Medieval    European    history,    1827- 

2104. 
Modern  European  history,  i827-2io4. 
Murray,  David,  quoted,  67-78. 

Parsons,  J.  R.  jr,  i8gi  syllabus 
edited  by,  83;  edition  of  18 g§  pre- 
pared by,  86-92;  directs  prepara- 
tion of  igoo  edition,  92. 

Per  cent  required,  149. 

Physical  geography,  i322-5o6 ;  counts, 
118;  laboratory  exercises  in,  147 J- 
5o6. 

Physical  science,  581-io44. 

Physics,  582-8i6;  counts,  n8;  topi- 
cal syllabus  in,  582-666;  laboratory 
syllabus  in,  666-8i6. 

Physiology  and  hygiene,  ii99-2  37; 
counts,  118. 

Preparatory  pupils,  use  of  term,  58. 

Psychology,  counts,    123. 

Punctuation,  185. 

Regents  examinations,  see  Examina- 
tions. 

Rhetoric,  172;  in  first  year  English, 
i96,2o5;  in  second  year  English, 
2 11,  2 17;  in  third  year  English,  22s, 
2  28-2  33;infourth  year  English,  237, 
244- 

Science,    io5x-3i2;  counts,  n8. 

Secondary  schools  and  students, 
number,  97. 

Shopwork,  counts,  123. 

Social  science,  2 482-7 19;  counts,   n9. 

Spanish,  381,  458-474;  counts,  116; 
examinations  covering  first  two 
years,  136;  elementary  require- 
ment, 458-467;  intermediate  re- 
quirement, 468-474. 

Spelling,  185. 

Stenography,  2927~935;    counts,  122. 

Syllabus,  historical  sketch,  33-io4; 
first  suggestions  of,  57;  David 
Murray  on,  67-78;  edition  of  1888, 
78-83;  edition  of  i8gi,  83;  edition 
of  i8g$,  8fl-92;    edition  of  igoo,  g3. 


INDEX   TO   SYLLABUS    FOR   SECONDARY    SCHOOLS 


321 


Trigonometry,    548-555;   counts,  n7. 
Typewriting,  2  935~942;  counts,  122. 

United    States  history,  see  American 
history. 

Virgil's  Aeneid,  34*. 

Watkins,    Albert  B.,  edition  of  1888 
prepared  by,  78-83. 


Wheelock,  Charles  F.,  edition  of  igoo 
prepared  by,  q2. 

Xenophon's   Anabasis,  36s. 

Zoology,      counts,    n9;   elementary, 
ii38-i98;    advanced,  i285-3i2. 


rM 


